3n\vx  Xty  SJtbrarg  af 
Prnfraaor  Ifeniamtn  Smttittrftg*  HarMfc 

l&tqnmttyb  bg  Ijtm  to 
^3  %  ffitbrarij  nf 

>*+->     5prinr?t0tt  Sttwlngtrai  &?mhtarg 


THEOLOGICAL  EDUCATOR 


Edited  by  the 

REV.   W.    ROBERTSON   NICOLE,    M.A. 

Editor  of  "  The  Expositor" 


REV.    W.  H.  BENNETT,  M.A. 
THE    THEOLOGY  OF   7 HE   OLD    TESTAMENT 


NEW   YORK 

THOMAS    WHITTAKER 

2  and  3.  BIBLE  HOUSE 


^ 

Christianity  and  Evolution. 

By  James  Iverach,  D.D. 
The  Theology  of  the  New  Testament. 

By  W.  F.  Adeney,  M.A. 
An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament. 

By  the  Rev.  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  D.D. 

The  Writers  of  the  New  Testament :  Their  Style  and 
Characteristics. 

By  the  Rev.  William  Henry  Simcox,  M.A. 
The  Language  of  the  New  Testament. 

By  the  same  Author. 
Outlines  of  Christian  Doctrine. 

By  the  Rev.  H.  C  G.  Moule,  M.A.,  D.D. 
A  Manual  of  Christian  Evidences. 

By    the    Rev.    C.    A.    Row,    M.A.,    Prebendary    of 
St.  Paul's. 

A  Manual  of  Church  History. 

By  the  Rev.  A.  C.  Jennings,  M.A.    In  Two  Volumes. 

Vol.  I.     From  the  First  to  the  Tenth  Century. 

Vol.  II.    From  the  Eleventh  to  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
An  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament. 

By  the  Rev.  Prof.  Marcus  Dods,  D.D. 

An  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  New 
Testament. 

By  the  Rev.  Prof.  B.  B.  Warfield,  D.D. 
An  Exposition  of  the  Apostles'  Creed. 

By  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Yonge,  M.A. 
A  Hebrew  Grammar. 

By  the  Rev.  W.  H.  Lowe,  M.A. 
A  Manual  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

By  the  Rev.  C.  Hole,  B.A. 


New  York  :   THOMAS   WHITTAKER, 
2  and  3,  Bible  House. 


V 


/ 


THE  THEOLOGY 

OF   THE 

OLD    TESTAMENT 


BY   THE    REV. 


w.  h.  Bennett,  m.a. 

Projessor  of  Old  Testament  Languages  and  Literature,  Hackney 
and  New  Colleges 


l  /r* 


b  T> 


y.  or 


NEW  YORK 

THOMAS    WHITTAKER 

2  and  3,  BIBLE  HOUSE 


PEEFACE 

OPECIAL  difficulties  beset  the  construction  of  a 
^  manual  on  any  subject  in  which  research  is  being 
vigorously  carried  on.  Not  only  are  new  theories  or 
discoveries  constantly  emerging,  but  old  landmarks 
sometimes  suddenly  disappear.  A  text -book  needs 
the  advice  : — 

"  Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  is  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside." 

Yet  the  application  of  this  precept  is  not  easy.     For 

instance,  on  page  97  it  is  said  that  the  pronunciation 

of     YHWH     (E.V.*    "Jehovah")     "is     generally 

supposed  to  have  been  Yak  well,"  but  since  that  page 

w;ts  written  Mr.  Pinches  has  announced  that  he  has 

discovered   that  the  true  pronunciation  of  YHWH 

was  Yakwah.      As  he  gives  no  evidence  it   is  hard 

to   tell    whether    he   has   really   solved   this   ancient 

enigma.     Still,  it  is   just   possible    that,    before    my 

little   book   is    published,    what    has    hitherto    been 

generally   held   on   this   point   may  be   as   generally 

abandoned. 

*  E.  V.  is  used  for  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  where  they  agree. 


vi  PREFACE 

But  the  difficulties  arising  from  actual  discoveries 
are  slight  compared  with  those  caused  by  antagonistic 
theories.  0.  T.  Theology  must  be  based  on  that 
exegesis  which  recognises  the  results  of  textual, 
literary,  and  historical  criticism.  Each  of  these  de- 
partments of  O.  T.  study  is  the  arena  of  fierce 
conflict.  Points  of  detail  and  the  general  theory 
of  0.   T.   are  contested  with  equal  enthusiasm. 

The  compass  of  this  work  excludes  lengthy  ex- 
planation and  almost  all  argument.  Hence  it  has 
been  necessary  to  carefully  limit  the  treatment  of 
the  subject.  The  ideal  O.  T.  Theology  would  contain, 
in  the  first  place,  a  history  of  the  religion  of  Israel, 
expounding  the  teaching  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  etc. ; 
the  characteristics  of  faith  and  worship  in  each 
period;  and  the  sequence  and  relation  of  the  suc- 
cessive unfoldings  of  divine  truth.  In  the  second 
place,  it  would  attempt  some  general  sketch  of  0.  T. 
teaching,  laying,  however,  the  main  stress  on  its 
historical  aspect.  It  is  just  here  that  controversy 
rages  most  fiercely;  opposing  schools  differ  toto  ccelo 
et  orco  as  to  the  date  of  some  of  the  most  important 
documents,  and  as  to  the  character  of  the  early 
history.  The  difficulty  of  expounding  Isaiah  will 
be  obvious  to  any  one  who  glances  at  such  a  table  as 
that  in  Prof.  Max  Kellner's  Prophecies  of  Isaiah, 
classifying  the  conclusions  of  Professors  Cheyne, 
Cornill,  Driver,  and  Kellner  in  their  analyses  of 
these    prophecies.       Here,    therefore,    I    have    been 


PREFACE  vii 

forced  to  tontine  the  consecutive  historical  treatment 
to  a  single  chapter — Chapter  II.,  "Israel  in  History" 
— and  have  dealt  very  briefly  indeed  with  the  pre- 
prophetic  period.  In  the  periods  treated  in  some 
detail,  I  have  minimised  the  use  of  controverted 
data.  It  must  be  remembered  that  many  0.  T 
terms  and  practices,  both  secular  and  ritual  alike, 
had  their  origin,  not  in  Revealed  Religion,  but 
outside  its  circle,  or  before  its  beginnings,  and  there- 
fore the  primitive  meaning  of  such  terms  and 
practices  forms  no  part  of  0.  T.  Revelation.  In 
the  following  chapters  I  have  tried  to  give  a  general 
sketch  of  0.  T.  teaching,  still  tracing  as  far  as 
possible  the  development  of  doctrine  and  the  relation 
of  each  feature  to  the  historic  setting  in  which  it 
appears. 

Chapter  V.  "  Israel  as  the  People  of  Jehovah," 
needs,  perhaps,  a  special  explanation.  In  this  I 
have  to  some  extent  combined  features  from  the 
Levitical  Law  with  the  pictures  of  the  Israel  of 
the  Monarchy.  For  I  am  convinced  that  in  spite 
of  much  that  is  late  in  form  and  detail,  and  even 
in  spirit — the  Levitical  Law,  as  well  as  Deuteronomy 
has  a  certain  spiritual  harmony  with  the  prophetic 
ideal  for  Israel.  Moreover,  0.  T.  has  come  down 
to  us  as  an  integer,  for  which  first  the  Jewish  and 
then  the  Christian  Church  claimed  integral  authority. 
We  are  therefore  bound  to  attempt  some  total 
estimate  of  its  teaching. 


viii  PREFACE 

From  this  standpoint,  as  well  as  for  reasons  of 
space,  I  have  given  no  detailed  separate  treatment 
to  the  Law,  the  History,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Wisdom,  Apocalyptic,  and  Devotional  Literature. 
Often  they  only  represent  contemporaneous  aspects 
of  the  same  religious  movements. 

A  word  may  be  added  on  some  interesting 
questions  which  lie,  for  the  most  part,  outside  the 
strict  limits  of  O.  T.  Theology.  No  sentence  ever 
conveys  exactly  to  a  reader  the  meaning  intended 
by  its  author,  nor  conveys  exactly  the  same  meaning 
to  any  two  readers.  Before  the  0.  T.  was  complete 
its  materials  had  passed  through  the  hands  of  many 
editors,  each  of  whom  had  understood  with  a 
difference,  so  that  many  sentences  may  be  standing 
in  canonical  Scriptures,  only  in  virtue  of  interpreta- 
tions alien  to  the  thought  of  the  first  author.  This 
inspired  process  of  progressive  interpretation  con- 
tinued after  the  O.  T.  Canon  was  closed.  A  Jew 
of  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  a  Pharisee  of  the  time 
of  Christ  must  have  held  widely  divergent  views 
as  to  the  resultant  teaching  of  Isaiah  or  Jeremiah; 
and  a  Roman  or  Corinthian  Christian  at  the  end 
of  the  first  century  would  have  differed  from  them 
both  even  more  widely  still.  Similarly,  to  determine 
what  views  of  0.  T.  were  held  by  the  Apostles  as 
Jews  (before  their  conversion),  and  shared  by  them 
with  their  fellow-countrymen,  has  great  importance 
lor  the  history  of   Christianity ;    but  none  of   these 


PREFACE  ix 

questions  strictly  belong  to  O.  T.  Theology.  More- 
over, a  Christian  to-day  naturally  asks  how  N.  T. 
interprets  0.  T.,  and  how  far  it  modifies  or  even  super- 
sedes its  teaching.  But  the  investigation  of  these 
problems  belongs  to  N.  T.  Theology  (cf.  pp.  165-168). 

A  table  is  appended  to  show  the  broad  divergence 
between  the  two  leading  schools  of  0.  T.  study,  as 
to  the  dates  of  the  books.  Between  the  extreme 
limits  almost  every  grade  of  opinion  is  held  by  one 
scholar  or  another.  The  table,  which  is  intentionally 
made  as  general  and  elastic  as  possible,  only  re- 
presents approximately  two  dominant  types  of  the 
opposing  views.  A  is  the  view  almost  universally 
held  before  the  middle  of  the  last  century.  For  the 
sake  of  clearness  it  is  given  in  an  extreme  form  : 
nearly  all  its  modern  adherents  make  considerable 
concessions  to  the  school  represented  by  Column  B. 

B  is  a  form  of  the  view  now  held  by  many  of 
the  most  distinguished  living  O.  T.  scholars.  Similar 
views  are  associated  in  England  with  the  names  of 
Professors  Cheyne  and  Driver  of  Oxford,  Professors 
Kyle  and  (the  late)  Bobertson  Smith  of  Cambridge, 
and  Prof.  G.  A.  Smith  of  Glasgow.  Here  again  no 
attempt  has  been  made  in  our  table  to  follow  these 
and  other  critics  in  their  treatment  of  paragraphs 
and  sentences  as  interpolations.  The  present  work 
follows  B,  where  it  is  necessary  to  decide  between 
conflicting  opinions. 

In  addition  to   the  obligations  mentioned  in    the 


x  PREFACE 

footnotes,  I  have  made  constant  use  of  the  works 
on  O.  T.  Theology  of  Oehler  and  Schultz  (Eng. 
Translations),  Smend,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  Kayser 
(Marti's  edition).  Without  attempting  a  bibliography, 
we  may  also  refer  the  English  reader  to  the  standard 
commentaries  on  important  passages ;  to  the  trans- 
lation of  Piepenbourg's  0.  T.  Theology]  and  for 
information  on  special  subjects  and  periods  to  Dr. 
Cave's  Inspiration  of  0.  T.,  and  Scripture  Doctrine  oj 
Sacrifice,  Dr.  Cheyne's  Origin  of  the  Psalter,  Dr. 
Duff's  0.  T.  Theology,  B.C.  800-640,  Dr.  James 
Robertson's  Early  Religion  oj  Israel,  the  late  Prof. 
Robertson  Smith's  0.  T.  in  the  Jeivish  Church, 
Prophets  of  Israel,  and  Religion  of  the  Semites',  and 
the  portion  of  Dr.  Salmoncl's  Christian  Doctrine  of 
I m  mortality,  which  deals  with  O.  T. 

It  is  a  matter  of  deep  regret  that  Dr.  A.  B. 
Davidson's  long-promised  comprehensive  work  on 
this  subject  has  not  appeared  in  time  to  be  made 
use  of  in  this  little  manual.  Dillmann's  work  was 
published  since  the  following  pages  were  printed. 

I  have  again  to  acknowledge  my  great  obligations 
to  the  Pev.  T.  H.  Darlow,  M.A.;  for  a  careful 
reading  of  the  MS.,  and  many  valuable  criticisms 
and  suggestions. 

December,  1895. 


Pebioo. 


Books,  ktc,  as  to  which 

TlltllE    IS    SUBSTANTIAL. 
A'iKKKMKNT    AS    TO    DaTK.* 


Before  the 

Accession  of 

Saul. 


From  the 

Accession  of 

Saul  to  the 

Death  of 

Solomon. 


Job,  Hexateuch, 
Psalm  xc. 


Judges,  Ruth, 

1  and  2  S 

Psalms,  with 

titles  David, 

Asaph, and 

Solomon,  and 

others. 

Canticles, 

Ecclesiastes,  and 

part  of  Proverbs. 


Sources  of  Parts 
of  Hexateuch 
and  Judges. 


Some  Psalmsl 

Part  of 

Proverbs. 

Sources  of  Part 

of  Samuel  and 

Kill'JS. 


Death  of 
Solomon  to 

about 

Accession  of 

Josiah. 


Parts  of  Isa.  i.-xxxix. 

Hosea,  Amos. 

Micah  (in  part). 

Part  of  Proverbs. 

Some  Psalms. 


All  Isaiah. 
All  Micah. 

Joel,  Jonah. 


Prophetic 

documents  of 

Hexateuch  (JE), 

1  and  2  S 

Joel?  Canticlesl 

Ruthl 
Zech.  rx.-xiv.  ? 


From  about 

the  Accession 

of  Josiah  to 

the  Fall  of 

the 
Monarchy. 


Xa  hum,  Zci  </<  ani  a  J> . 
Hababbuk.  Parts  of 
Jeremiah  and  EzekieL 


Part  of 

Deuteronomy. 

Part  of 

Proverbs. 


Exile. 


Kings.    Rest  of 

Jeremiah  and  Ezckiel. 

Some  Psalms. 

Lamentations,  Obadiah . 


Rest  of 
Deuteronomy . 

Judges  2 
Law  of  Holiness 
(H),  Job  ■'.  Part 
of  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.. 

Part  of 

Proverbs. 


Persian 
Period. 


Haggai,  Zech.  i.-viii. 
Malachi. 

Some  Psalms. 


Chronicles. 

Ezra. 

Nehemiah. 

Daniel,  Esther. 

CLOSE   OF   THE 
CANON. 


Most  (?)  of  the 
Psalms.  Priestly 
Code  (P.).  Parts 
of  Isaiah  and 

Jeremiah, 

Jonah,  Joel? 

Canticlesl 

Rath  ? 


Greek 
Period. 


Chronicles,  Ezra 
Nehemiah, 

Zech.  ix.-xiv.? 
Ecclesiastes. 


Maccabaean 
Period. 


Some  Psalms. 
Daniel,  Esther. 


'  This  "  substantial  agreement"  does  not  always  extend  to  small  sections 
of  books,  oi  to  the  form  in  which  they  are  extant.  In  some  cases  it  is 
doubtful  in  which  of  two  successive  periods  a  book  should  be  placed. 
This  also  applies  to  A  and  B. 


CONTENTS 

DIVISION  I 
JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 


PAGE 


§  1.  The  Old  Testament:  a  Revelation  in  and  through 

Israel 3 

§  2.  Aspects  of  the  Relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel     .  3 


CHAPTER  II 

ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY 

§  3.  Introductory — i.,  History,  a  Revelation — ii.,  Starting 
Point — iii.,  Actual  Life  of  Israel — iv.,  Twofold 
Judgment  on  that  Life — v.,  Popular  Judgment 
— vi.,  Judgment  of  the  Prophets — vii.  Prophetic 
Interpretation  of  History — viii.,  Application  of  the 
Teaching  of  History— ix.,  Elijah  and  Elisha  . 
xiii 


xiv  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

§  4.  Prophets  of  the  Eighth  Century — i.,  Amos — ii., 
Hosea — iii.  Isaiah's  Call  and  Commission — iv., 
Isaiah's  Message  to  Judah  in  the  Reign  of  Ahaz — 
v.,  Isaiah  and  the  War  with  Syria  and  Ephraim — 
vi.j  Isaiah  and  Israel — vii.,  Micah  and  Israel — viii., 
Fall  of  Samaria — ix.,  Micah  and  Judah— x.,  Isaiah 
and  the  Assyrians — xi.,  The  Revolt  against  Assyria 
— xii.,  The  Deliverance  from  Sennacherib — xiii., 
Hezekiah's  Reformation 14 

§  5.  The  Publication  of  Deuteronomy — i.  Reaction  under 
Manasseh  and  Amon — ii.,  Fall  of  Nineveh;  Zepha- 
niah,  Nahnm — iii.,  Publication  of  Deuteronomy  ; 
Josiah's  Reformation — iv.,  Abolition  of  Idols — v., 
Suppression  of  High  Places — viM  Priests  of  the  High 
Places — vii.,  Prophets — viii.,  Other  Ordinances,  etc. 
— ix.,  Divine  Unity — x.,  Doctrine  of  Forgiveness — 
xi.,  Beginning  of  the  Canon 32 

§  6.  Last  Days  of  the  Monarchy — i.,  Megiddo — ii.,  Temple 
as  Palladium — iii.,  Syncretism — iv.,  Jeremiah  and 
the  Last  Kings  of  Judah — v.,  The  Prophet  as  Traitor 
and  Heretic — vi.,  The  Inevitable  Ruin  of  Judah — 
vii.,  The  Remnant — viii.,  The  Judgment  of  the 
Nations— ix.,  Habakkuk — x.,  Ezekiel  and  the  Pales- 
tinian Jews— xi.,  Fall  of  Jerusalem— xii.,  Jewish 
Refugees  in  Egypt — xiii.,  Obadiah     ....      43 

§  7.  The  Captivity— i. ,  Religion  a  Spiritual  Life  and  not 
a  Ritual  Observance — ii.,  Literary  Activity — iii., 
Formation  of  Ritual  Codes — iv.,  Ezek.,  xl.-xlviii. 
— v.,  Law  of  Holiness,  Lev.  xvii.-xxvi — vi.,  Lamen- 
tations— vii.,  Isa.,  xl.-lxvi. — viii.,  Promise  of 
Restoration — ix.,  Fall  of  Babylon  and  Return  of 
the  Jews 54 

§  8.  Judaism — i.,  The  Restored  Community  and  the 
Jewish  Dispersion — ii.,  The  Rebuilding  of  the  Temple 
— iii.,  The  Reforms  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah ;  Levitical 
Law  (Priestly  Code)  ;  Malachi — iv.,  The  Samaritans 
—v.,  Anti-legal  Tendencies  within  Judaism  ;  Ruth  (?), 


CONTENTS  xv 

PAOR 

Jonah  (?),  Proverbs,  Jol>,  Ecclesiastes,  Psalms— vi., 
Divine  Justice  and  the  Sufferings  of  the  Righteous  ; 
Job,  Ecclesiastes — vii.,  Individualism — viii.,  An- 
tagonism of  Judaism  and  the  Gentile  World  ;  Esther 
— ix.,  Persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  ;  Daniel .       62 


CHAPTER   III 
THE   IDEAL   ISRAEL 

§  9.  The  Kingdom — i.,  Messianic  Prophecies— ii.,  Prepara- 
tion for  the  Kingdom — iii.,  The  Day  of  Jehovah — 
iv.,  The  New  Israel — v.,  Palestine  as  the  Home  of  the 
New  Israel — vi.,  The  Constitution  of  the  New  Israel 
— vii.,  Moral  and  Spiritual  Perfection — viii.,  The 
New  Covenant — ix.,  Israel  and  the  Heathen — x., 
Religious  Supremacy  of  Israel — xi.,  The  Kingdom  of 
God 79 

§  10.  The  Messiah— L,  Messiah  as  King— ii.,  Messiah  as 
Prophet — iii.,  Messiah  as  the  True  Israel — iv.,  Messiah 
as  Priest 87 

§11.  New  Heavens  and  New  Earth 94 


CHAPTER   IV 

JEHOVAH   AS   THE   GOD   OP   ISRAEL 

§  12.  Names 97 

§  13.  Anthropomorphism  and  Anthropopathism       .         .       99 

§  14.  The  Bond  between  Jehovah  and  Israel — i.,  Election 
and  Divine  Sovereignty — ii.,  Providence — iii. father- 
hood— iv.,  Marriage — v.,  Israel  the  Client  of  Jehovah 
— vi.,  Covenant 100 

§  15.  Moral  Attributes  of  Jehovah— i..  Trustworthiness 
and  Self-consistency — ii.,  P>enevolence— iii.,  Justice 
— iv.,  Glory,  Majesty.  Sanctity — v,,  The  Name  ,         .     103 


xvi  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

§  16.  Jehovah's  Revelation  of  Himself — i.,  Theophanies 
— ii.,  Supernatural  Organs:  Spirit,  Word,  Wisdom, 
Angels — iii.,  Transcendentalism — iv.,  Foreshadow- 
ings  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity — v.,  Nature  and 
History — vi.,  Human  Agents :  Nation,  King,  Prophet, 
Priest — vii.,  Methods— viii.,  Record — ix.,  Scope         .     105 

CHAPTER    V 

ISRAEL   AS   THE   PEOPLE   OP  JEHOVAH 

§  17.  Sanctity 123 

§  18.  Sacred  Places— i.,  The  Land  of  Israel — ii.,  Tenure 
of  Land — iii.,  High  Places— i v.,  Cities  of  Refuge — 
v.,  Tabernacle  and  Temple — vi.,  Synagogues     .         .124 

§  19.  Sacred  Persons — i.,  Nation — ii.,  Royal  Dynasty  and 
King — iii.,  Levites — iv.,  Priests — v.,  High  Priests — 
vi.,  Graduated  Sanctity — vii.,  Representation  of 
Israel  to  Jehovah — viii.,  Prophets — ix.,  Seers,  Sons 
of  the  Prophets — x.,  Remnant — xi.,  Nazirites — 
xii.,  Scribes 128 

§  20.  Sacred     Seasons— i.,     Sanctity    of     All     Time — 
ii.,    Agricultural    Feasts — iii.,     Historical     Feasts — 
iv.,  Astronomical  Feasts— v.,  Day  of  Atonement      .     136 

§  21.  Sacred  Acts— i.,  Connected  with  the  Land — 
ii.,  Connected  with  the  People — iii.,  Connection  of 
Sacred  Acts  with  Sanctuaries,  Feasts,  and  Priest- 
hood—iv.,  Sacrifices — v.,  Ritual  of  Passover  and 
Day  of  Atonement — vi.,  Other  Forms  of  Worship — 
vii.,  Fasts — viii.,  Dedication  of  Persons  and  Places 
— ix.,  The  Ban— x.,  Oaths 141 

§  22.  Sacred  Objects— i.,  Clean  and  Unclean  Things— 
ii.,  Apparatus  of  Worship — iii.,  The  Ark  and  the 
Mercy  Seat — iv.,  Most  Sacred  Objects        .         .         .     156 

§  23.  The  Sanctity  of  Israel 159 

§  24.  Preservation  and  Renewal  of  Sanctity     .                 .160 
§  25.  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice 163 


CONTENTS 


xvii 


CHAPTER   VI 
JEHOVAH   AND   THE   ISRAELITE 


§  26.  The  Nation  and  the  Individual 

§  27.  Individual  Righteousness 

§  28.  Sin 

§  29.  Rewards  and  Punishments 

§  30.  Forgiveness      .... 

§31.  Spiritual  Gifts. 

§  32.  Apparent  Failure  of  Divine  Justice 

§  33.  Future  Life      .... 


PAOF. 

171 

173 
175 
176 

177 
178 
179 

187 


DIVISION  II 
GOD  AND  THE  UNIVERSE 

§  84.  Man 193 

§  35.  Evil 196 

§  36.  Material  Universe 197 

§  37.  Supernatural  Beings 197 

§  38.  Doctrine  of  God 199 


DIVISION   I 
JEHOVAH  AND    ISRAEL 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 


CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  Old  Testament  a  Revelation  in  and  through 
Israel. — The  Old  Testament  is  the  record  of  the 
Revelation  of  God  which  He  gave  to  mankind 
through  the  life  and  history  of  Israel.  Such  a 
Revelation  was  necessarily  made,  in  the  first  instance, 
to  Israel  itself.  The  nation  learnt  to  know  God  by  its 
experience  of  His  Providence  and  the  teaching  of  His 
inspired  representatives.  Its  religion  was  a  sense  and 
recognition  of  His  relation  to  Israel ;  and  its  theology 
— as  far  as  any  explicit  theology  existed — was  the 
theory  and  statement  of  that  relation.  The  Divine 
Name,  Jehovah  (cf.  §  12),  constantly  styled  "  the  God 
of  Israel,"  symbolises  the  relation  between  God  and 
the  Chosen  People.  As  the  recipient  of  this  Revela- 
tion, Israel  represents  mankind,  and  the  relation 
between  Jehovah  and  Israel,  is  a  type  of  the  relation 
which  should  exist  between  God  and  man  (cf.  §  33). 
On  the  other  hand,  so  far  as  Israel  accepted  and 
obeyed  its  special  Revelation,  it  represented  God  to 
the  world,  and  became  the  inspired  teacher  of  His 
truth  to  mankind  (cf.  §  7,  vii.). 

2.  Aspects  of  the  Relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel. — 
We  shall  consider  the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel 

3 


4  INTRODUCTION 

under  four  aspects  :  (i.)  As  set  forth  in  the  events  of 
the  history  of  Israel ;  (ii.)  In  connection  with  the 
prophetic  ideal  for  Israel — the  Messianic  Kingdom 
of  God.  On  the  basis  of  (i.)  and  (ii.)  we  shall  construct, 
as  far  as  the  material  admits  of  technical  form, 
a  formal  statement  of  the  0.  T.  doctrine  of  (hi.) 
Jehovah  as  the  God  of  Israel.  Then,  as  distinct 
from  the  Messianic  Israel,  we  shall  describe  the 
actual  Israel,  so  far  as  it  was  faithful  to  Jehovah  ; 
the  righteousness  to  which  devout  kings,  prophets 
and  legislators  sought  to  make  the  nation  conform ; 
(iv.)  Israel  as  the  People  of  Jehovah. 


CHAPTER  II 
ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER   II 

ISRAEL    IN    HISTORY 

3.  Introductory,  i.  The  History  as  a  Revelation. 
— All  sections  of  the  0.  T.  agree  in  regarding  the 
History  of  Israel  as  the  special  sphere  of  the  working 
of  the  Divine  Providence,  and  therefore  as  itself 
a  Revelation  of  the  will  and  character  of  Jehovah. 

ii.  The  Starting  Point  for  the  Study  of  the 
History. —  This  is  naturally  found  in  the  special 
relation  between  Jehovah  and  Israel  which  is 
taken  for  granted  throughout  the  O.  T.  This 
relation  is  often  accepted  as  a  simple  fact  in  the 
nature  of  things  ;  but  it  is  also  explained  as  the 
result  of  the  Divine  Election  (§  14,  i.)  of  Israel.  This 
election  or  calling  became-  effectual  in  the  series  of 
events  which  made  Israel  a  nation,  the  emigration 
from  Chaldea,  the  preservation  of  the  people  during 
their  nomad  life,  and  especially  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt,  the  Exodus,  and  the  conquest  of  Canaan. 
So  Hosea  xi.  1,  "  When  Israel  was  a  child,  then  I  loved 
him,  and  called  My  Son  out  of  Egypt "  j  in  Jer.  ii.  2 
Israel  is  "  espoused  "  to  Jehovah  in  the  wilderness ; 
in  Ezek.  xx.  5,  Jehovah  "chose  Israel  .  .  .  and  made 
Himself  known  unto  them  in  the  land  of  Egypt.' 
Cf.  Exod.  iii.  13  (E),  vi.  2  (P). 


8  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

Similarly,  the  Davidic  dynasty  (1  Sam.  xvi.  1 ;  2 
Sam.  vii.)  and  its  royal  city,  Jerusalem  (Ezek.  xvi.), 
owe  their  pre-eminence  to  the  Divine  Election. 
Moreover  the  disruption  of  Israel  into  two  kingdoms 
is  also  due  to  the  set  purpose  of  Jehovah  (1  Kings 
xi.,  xii.). 

Thus  in  Israel  we  have  a  people  who  owe  their 
origin  and  the  conditions  of  their  national  life  to 
the  action  of  the  sovereign  will  of  Jehovah. 

hi.  The  Actual  Life  of  Israel. — In  spite  of  this 
exceptional  relation  to  Jehovah,  the  history  clearly 
shows  that  Ancient  Israel— the  Israel  of  the  Judges 
and  the  Monarchy — never  attained  for  any  long 
period  to  any  exceptionally  high  standard  of  moral 
and  spiritual  life.  On  the  whole,  the  life  of  Israel 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  of  a  very  elifferent 
character  from  that  of  other  nations ;  it  resembled 
most  closely  that  of  the  neighbouring  henotheistic 
tribes  of  Moab  and  Edom.  Possibly  as  time  went 
on  and  Israel  advanced  in  power  and  culture, 
and  entered  into  wider  international  relations,  it 
surpassed  its  neighbours  in  the  vices  peculiar  to 
civilisation,  and  in  its  predilection  for  religious 
eclecticism.  On  the  other  hand,  we  cannot  suppose 
that  Israel  was  conspicuously  and  consciously  worse 
than  surrounding  peoples. 

iv.  Twofold  Judgment  upon  the  Life  of  Israel. 
— When  men  began  to  reflect  upon  the  moral  quality 
of  this  national  life,  they  raised  one  of  the  great 
problems  of  Israelite  theology.  That  Jehovah  was 
the  God  of  Israel,  and  that  Israel  was  the  People  of 
Jehovah,  was  a  fundamental  axiom  with  all  Israelites, 


ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY  9 

but  controversy  arose  as  to  the  application  of  this 
principle.  How  far  was  Jehovah  satisfied  with  the 
actual  life  of  Israel,  what  treatment  did  Israel 
deserve  at  His  hands,  and  how  was  He  likely  to 
treat  His  People?  To  these  questions  two  main 
answers  were  given — that  of  the  inspired  prophets, 
and  that  of  the  people  and  the  religious  teachers 
who  were  the  mouthpieces  of  popular  feeling. 

v.  The  Popular  Judgment. — The  popular  con- 
science was  not  aware  that  the  national  life  was 
inconsistent  with  that  mutual  devotion  of  Jehovah 
and  Israel  (cc.  iv.,  v.)  which  was  generally  regarded 
as  a  fundamental  article  of  faith. 

(a)  Conditions  of  Jehovah's  Favour. — As  regarded 
the  moral  character  of  ordinary  life  average  Israelites 
were  content  with  the  same  imperfect  compromise 
accepted  elsewhere.  They  did  not  suppose  that 
Jehovah's  favour  was  dependent  upon  moral  con- 
ditions; but  expected  that  Jehovah  would  help  His 
People,  simply  because  they  were  His  People. 

(b)  Value  of  Ritual. — Such  inducement  as  Jehovah 
might  require  to  help  Israel  was  to  be  found  in 
ritual,  especially  sacrifice.  Sacrifice  had  a  value  in 
itself,  apart  from  the  conduct  and  character  of  the 
worshipper;  its  efficacy  was  supposed  to  depend  on 
quantity  and  technique,  and  not  on  moral  and 
spiritual  significance  (Isa.  i.). 

(c)  Character  of  Worship. — They  did  not  suppose 
that  Jehovah  required  a  purer,  more  seemly,  more 
humane,  more  spiritual  worship  than  Baal,  Moloch, 
or  Chemosh.  They  sought  to  gratify  Him  by 
idolatry,  religious  prostitution  (Amos  ii.   7),  obscene 


10  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

rites  and  symbols,  and  human  sacrifice,  especially  the 
sacrifice  of  children. 

(d)  Confusion  with  "  Other  Gods." — They  thought 
to  manifest  their  devotion  to  Jehovah  by  ascribing  to 
Him  the  attributes,  and  worshipping  Him  with  the 
titles,  symbols  and  rites  of  the  gods  of  neighbouring 
tribes  (Hosea  ii.     Cf.  v.  16). 

(e)  Divided  Religious  Allegiance. — The  use  of 
rites,  etc.,  ordinarily  associated  with  "Other  Gods" 
practically  involved  the  more  or  less  explicit  worship 
of  these  deities;  without  however,  as  a  rule,  any 
renunciation  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah. 

(f)  Jehovah  Responsible  for  Disaster. — -They  were 
inclined  to  account  for  national  catastrophes,  not  by 
their  own  sin,  but  by  the  failure  of  Jehovah  to  care 
for  His  People,  either  through  lack  of  power  or  of 
goodwill.  Hence  they  found  a  justification  either  for 
abandoning  Him  altogether,  or  at  any  rate  for  seeking 
further  divine  aid  from  other  gods.  Thus  the  Jewish 
refugees  in  Egypt,  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem, 
attributed  their  misfortunes  to  the  wrath  of  the  Queen 
of  Heaven,  against  whom,  apparently,  Jehovah  had 
been  powerless  to  protect  them  (Jer.  xliv.). 

(g)  The  Fate  of  Israel. — Until,  however,  the  final 
catastrophe  of  Judah,  the  Israelites  clung  to  the 
hope  that  the  Divine  Favour  guaranteed  the  prosperity 
and  permanence  of  Israel,  without  reference  to  the 
moral  and  spiritual  character  of  the  national  life. 
The  "Day  of  Jehovah"  was  at  hand,  in  which  He 
would  deliver  His  People. 

(h)  The  Character  of  Jehovah. — It  will  thus  appear 
that   the   Israelites   generally  had   no   clear  under- 


ISRAEL    IN  HISTORY  11 

standing  of  the  fact  that  Jehovah  was  a  moral  being. 
They  did  not  recognise  Him  as  unique  or  even 
supreme,  but  tended  to  confuse  Him  and  even  to  put 
Him  on  a  level  with  the  tribal  and  national  deities  of 
their  heathen  neighbours. 

vi.  The  Judgment  of  the  Prophets. — The  prophets 
confronted  this  popular  theology  with  an  emphatic 
and  sweeping  condemnation,  and  announced  a  different 
standard  of  conduct. 

(a)  Conditions  of  Jehovah's  Favour. — The  favour 
of  Jehovah  was  not  the  indiscriminate  indulgence 
shown  by  a  foolish  father  to  a  spoiled  child,  but  was 
based  upon  a  covenant  (§  14,  vi.),  the  terms  of  which 
were  essentially  moral. 

(b)  Value  of  Ritual. — Ritual,  however  splendid  or 
profuse,  was  an  abomination  to  Jehovah  when 
offered  by  an  immoral  people.  "To  what  purpose 
is  the  multitude  of  your  sacrifices  unto  Me  ?  saith 
Jehovah.  I  am  full  of  the  burnt-offerings  of  rams 
and  the  fat  of  fed  beasts;  and  I  delight  not  in  the 
blood  of  bullocks,  or  of  lambs,  or  of  he-goats.  .  .  . 
Bring  no  more  vain  oblations  ;  incense  is  an  abomina- 
tion unto  Me ;  new  moon  and  sabbath,  the  calling  of 
assemblies.  I  cannot  endure  iniquity  and  the  solemn 
meeting"  (Isa.  i.  11,  13.     Of.  context). 

(c)  Character  of  Jehovah  and  of  Acceptable  Worship. 
■ — Jehovah  was  essentially  different  in  His  righteous- 
ness and  His  claims  from  all  other  gods.  He  must 
not  be  worshipped  with  the  cruel  and  impure  rites  of 
heathen  ritual;  He  must  not  be  confounded  with 
other  gods,  neither  will  He  submit  to  share  with 
them  His  sanctuaries,  His  land,  or  His  people. 


12  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

(d)  They  declared  that  this  standard  was  not  observed. 
— The^solemn  and  unanimous  judgment  of  the  prophets 
pronounced  that  Israel  had  altogether  failed  to 
observe  the  conditions  of  the  covenant  between  itself 
and  Jehovah.  Its  life  and  worship  were  alike  im- 
moral. 

(e)  The  fate  of  Israel. — Hence  this  covenant  became 
void  by  Israel's  default  and  wrongdoing ;  Israel  had 
forfeited  all  claim  on  Jehovah's  favour,  and  was 
liable  to  His  wrath  and  vengeance.  Therefore  its 
special  relation  to  Jehovah  became  the  ground  for 
inflicting  a  more  severe  punishment.  "  You  only 
have  I  known  of  all  the  families  of  the  earth,  there- 
fore I  will  punish  you  for  all  your  iniquities  "  (Amos 
iii.  2).  The  sin  of  Israel  was  such  that  it  was  a 
moral  impossibility  for  Jehovah  to  tolerate  the 
continued  existence  of  the  nation  ;  its  ruin  was  in- 
evitable ;  the  "  Day  of  Jehovah "  would  bring  to 
Israel  not  deliverance  but  destruction.  "  Woe  unto 
you  that  desire  the  day  of  Jehovah !  Wherefore 
would  ye  have  the  day  of  Jehovah  %  It  is  darkness 
and  not  light  "  (Amos  v.  18). 

viii.  The  Prophetic  Interpretation  of  History. 
— Recognising  the  continuity  of  the  national  life  of 
Israel,  the  prophets  saw,  in  the  former  calamities  of 
the  people,  divine  judgments  upon  national  sin.  On 
the  other  hand,  periods  of  prosperity  were  the  reward 
of  closer  approximation  to  the  true  standard  of  life. 
This  view  is  specially  taught  in  the  Book  of  Judges, 
which  received  its  present  form  from  editors  who 
wrote  under  the  influence  of  the  teaching  of  the 
prophets.      Throughout    this    book,    as    the    people 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  13 

alternate  between  "doing  evil  in  the  sight  of  Jehovah" 
and  "  crying  unto  Jehovah,"  they  are  "  sold  into  the 
hand  of  their  enemy  "  and  "  delivered." 

We  must,  however,  be  careful  to  remember  that 
supreme  acts  of  the  Divine  Providence,  such  as  the 
Exodus  and  the  Conquest,  are  never  considered  as 
rewards  for  any  righteousness  of  Israel. 

viii.  Application  of  the  Teaching  of  History. — 
Certain  elementary  truths  of  0.  T.  Revelation  were 
involved  in  this  teaching  : 

(a)  Sin  brought  suffering. 

(b)  A  righteous  life  brought  prosperity. 

(c)  The  vicissitudes  of  the  fortunes  of  Israel,  the 
fact  that  the  punishment  even  of  gross  national  sin 
came  to  an  end,  that  Israel  survived,  and  was 
permitted  to  enter  upon  new  periods  of  prosperity, 
showed  that  Jehovah  forgave  sin  on  condition  of 
repentance  and  amendment. 

The  judgment  of  the  prophets  upon  Israel  and 
Judah,  and  their  teaching  generally,  are  largely  the 
application  of  these  truths  to  the  life  of  their  times. 

ix.  Elijah  and  Elisha. — These  prophets  were  the 
forerunners  of  those  whose  writings  still  survive. 
Their  mission  was  to  assert  the  exclusive  claims  of 
Jehovah  as  against  Baal.  The  people  halted  between 
two  opinions — i.e.,  they  wished  to  worship  Jehovah 
and  Baal,  or  to  have  a  worship  which  might  serve 
indifferently  for  either.  Elijah  demanded  that  they 
should  recognise  that  the  two  divine  names  repre- 
sented two  incompatible  religious  systems.  The 
people  could  not  combine  them,  they  could  not 
use    now   one    and    now   another    to    suit   changing 


14  JEHOVAH  AND    ISRAEL 

circumstances,  or  to  gratify  a  love  of  variety,  they 
must  make  a  definite  and  final  choice  between  them. 
"  How  long  halt  ye  between  two  opinions  1  If 
Jehovah  be  God,  follow  him  :  but  if  Baal,  then  follow 
him"  (1  Kings  xviii.  21).  As  the  house  of  Omri 
specially  favoured  the  combination  of  Baal  worship 
with  the  pure  worship  of  Jehovah,  the  controversy 
resolved  itself  into  a  contest  between  that  dynasty 
and  the  prophets.  In  the  end,  Elisha  overthrew  the 
House  of  Omri,  and  raised  Jehu  to  the  throne. 
Henceforth  the  royal  authority  was  exerted  against 
Baal  worship,  and  so  far  victory  rested  with  the 
prophets.  But  such  external  revolutions  did  com- 
paratively little  to  change  the  mind  and  habits  of 
the  people  ;  and  the  accession  of  Jehu  was  only  one 
stage  in  a  long  struggle. 

4.  Prophets  of  the  Eighth  Century,  i.  Amos, 
cir.  750  B.C. — Nevertheless  the  history  of  the  House  of 
Jehu  seemed  to  indicate  that  Jehovah  was  rewarding 
Jehu's  action  as  acceptable  service  to  Himself.  Elisha 
supported  the  new  dynasty  by  his  counsel  and  en- 
couragement, and  by  the  weight  of  his  prophetic 
authority ;  and  Jeroboam  II.  brought  the  long  duel 
between  Samaria  and  Damascus  to  a  successful  close, 
and  reigned  for  forty- one  years  with  a  splendour  and 
power  that  recalled  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon. 
The  Book  of  Kings  tells  us  (2  Kings  xiv.  23-27) 
Jeroboam  II.  was  sent  by  Jehovah  to  save  Israel 
according  to  the  word  of  the  prophet  Jonah  ben 
Amittai. 

At  this  crisis,  the  first  of  the  great  prophets  of  the 
eighth  century  appeared  upon  the  scene,  and,  possibly 


ISRAEL   IX  HISTORY  15 

because  he  felt  that  his  message  constituted  a  new 
departure  in  the  history  of  prophecy,  he  expressly 
defined  the  position  and  claims  of  a  true  prophet.  He 
did  not  speak  as  a  member  of  any  established  order, 
or  in  virtue  of  any  special  training  or  personal  genius, 
or  as  having  been  charged  "with  the  transmission  of 
any  traditional  teaching ;  but  because  he  had  received 
a  direct  and  personal  call  from  Jehovah  :  "I  was 
neither  a  prophet,  nor  a  disciple  of  the  prophets ;  but 
I  was  a  herdman,  and  a  dresser  of  sycamore  trees  : 
and  Jehovah  took  me  from  following  the  flock,  and 
Jehovah  said  unto  me,  Go,  prophesy  unto  My  people 
Israel"  (vii.  15).  Such  prophets — as  distinguished 
from  the  mere  professional  preachers  with  whom 
Amos  repudiated  all  connection — were  admitted  to 
full  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the  purposes  of 
Jehovah.  "  Surely  the  Lord  Jehovah  will  do  nothing 
without  revealing  His  secret  unto  His  servants  the 
prophets"  (iii.  7).  This  Revelation  is  a  trust  for 
Israel.  Jehovah  is  entirely  frank  and  open  in  His 
dealings  with  His  people.  "  Necessity  is  laid  upon  " 
the  prophet  to  declare  the  secret  plans  of  Jehovah  to 
Israel.  "The  lion  hath  roared,  who  will  not  fear? 
The  Lord  Jehovah  hath  spoken,  who  can  refrain 
from  prophesying  ?  "  (iii.  8). 

Under  the  stress  of  this  divine  compulsion,  sus- 
tained by  the  consciousness  of  a  supreme  inspiration, 
Amos,  the  herdman  of  Tekoa  in  Judah,  appeared  at 
the  royal  sanctuary  at  Bethel  to  deliver  his  message. 
The  Northern  Kingdom  was  exulting  in  the  glory 
and  prosperity  to  which  it  had  been  raised  by  its 
victorious  king.      These  blessings  were   received   as 


16  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

tokens  of  divine  favour  and  approval,  as  fresh  evi- 
dence that  the  interest  of  Jehovah  in  His  People 
guaranteed  the  safety  and  welfare  of  Israel.  Amos, 
as  the  first  spokesman  of  the  New  Prophecy,  in  the 
name  of  Jehovah  repudiated  once  for  all  this  ancient 
doctrine,  and  declared  "  Jeroboam  shall  die  by  the 
sword,  and  Israel  shall  surely  be  led  away  captive 
out  of  his  land  "  (vii.  11).  Elsewhere  in  his  book  this 
sentence  is  repeated  and  amplified.  The  divine 
displeasure  had  already  been  intimated  by  drought, 
failure  of  crops,  famine,  pestilence,  and  earthquake  ; 
these  were  calls  to  repentance,  to  which  the  people 
had  turned  a  deaf  ear  (iv.  6-11).  Therefore  a  day 
of  distress  and  defeat  (ii.  13-16,  iii.  14,  15,  iv.  12, 
v.  16-27,  etc.)  will  come  upon  Israel,  and  they  shall 
go  into  captivity  beyond  Damascus. 

The  recent  victories  of  Israel  had  not  really  been 
due  to  renewed  national  vigour.  Damascus  had 
fallen  because  its  strength  had  been  worn  away  by 
the  continual  attacks  of  the  Assyrians.  For  the 
moment  the  Assyrians  had  paused  in  their  advance 
westward,  and  the  fruit  of  their  many  campaigns  had 
been  gathered  by  Israel.  But  the  fall  of  Damascus 
laid  Israel  bare  to  its  new  and  more  terrible  enemy. 
Amos  claimed  this  heathen  empire  as  the  instrument 
chosen  by  Jehovah  to  chastise  His  People.  "Behold 
I  will  raise  up  a  nation,  that  shall  afflict  you  from 
the  entering  in  of  Hamath  unto  the  brook  of  Arabah  " 
(vi.  14).  Jehovah  had  not  merely  ceased  to  be  the 
Champion  of  Israel,  but  had  armed  her  enemies 
against  her.  Amos  dwells  upon  the  sins  which  have 
drawn  down  this  condemnation  upon  Israel ;  these 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  17 

are :  the  oppression  of  the  poor  by  the  rich  and 
powerful  (iii.  10,  iv.  1,  vii.)  ;  the  venality  of  the  judges 
and  rulers  (ii.  6);  dishonest  business  dealings  (viii.  5)  ; 
impure  worship  (ii.  7). 

In  spite  of  their  sins,  the  people  -thought  to  render 
themselves  acceptable  to  Jehovah  by  innumerable 
sacrifices  and  offerings  at  their  many  sanctuaries 
(iv.  4,  5) j  but  Jehovah  repudiated  and  condemned 
their  worship  :  "  I  hate,  I  despise  your  feasts,  and  I 
will  take  no  delight  in  your  solemn  assemblies.  Yea, 
though  you  offer  me  your  burnt  offerings  and  meat 
offerings  I  will  not  accept  them ;  neither  will  I  regard 
the  peace  offerings  of  your  fat  beasts"  (v.  21,  22). 

Not  only  the  worship,  but  the  sanctuaries  are 
condemned.  Here  first  we  meet  with  that  attack 
upon  the  high  places  which  is  one  of  the  main 
features  of  the  prophetic  movement  of  the  eighth 
century.  Bethel,  Gilgal,  Beersheba,  Dan,  and 
Samaria  are  in  turn  denounced  (iii.  14,  iv.  4,  5, 
v.  5,  viii.  14). 

Judah  is  dealt  with  very  briefly  and  generally, 
Amos,  indeed,  sees  in  Jerusalem  the  special  dwelling- 
place  of  Jehovah.  "Jehovah  shall  roar  from  Zion, 
and  utter  His  voice  from  Jerusalem "  (i.  2) ;  but 
Jehovah  saith  also  that,  because  Judah  has  disobeyed 
Him,  He  "  will  send  a  fire  upon  Judah,  and  it  shall 
devour  the  palaces  of  Jerusalem  "  (ii.  5). 

ii.  Hosea,  cir.  735. — The  death  of  Jeroboam  II.  was 
shortly  followed  by  the  overthrow  of  his  dynasty. 
Torn  by  intestine  strife  and  exposed  to  Assyrian 
invasions  the  country  rapidly  sank  into  misery  and 
corruption.     In  the  time  of  Amos  the  moral  rotten- 

2 


18  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

ness  of  the  people  had  been  partly  hidden  by  a  veneer 
of  order  and  decency ;  but  now,  in  the  death  throes 
of  Israel,  sin  was  manifest  in  open,  highhanded  crimes. 
Hosea  had  painful  experience  of  the  corruption  of  his 
times,  not  only  as  an  Israelite,  but  also  in  his  per- 
sonal life ;  his  prophetic  mission  and  even  the  form 
of  his  message  were  conditioned  by  the  adultery  of 
his  wife. 

Similarly,  Israel  had  been  unfaithful  to  her  husband 
Jehovah;  whom  she  had  confounded  with  (ii.  16),  and 
forsaken  for  (ii.  5),  Baal  and  Baalim.  This  unfaith- 
fulness had  led  to  gross  wickedness  :  "  There  is  no 
truth,  nor  mercy,  nor  knowledge  of  God  in  the  land. 
There  is  nought  but  swearing  and  breaking  faith, 
killing  and  stealing  and  committing  adultery  "  (iv.  1, 
2).  The  priests  murder  in  the  way  toward  Shechem, 
(vi.  9).     The  traders  use  deceitful  balances  (xii.  7). 

The  people  still  delighted  in  sacrifices  and  religious 
observances  (ii.  11,  iv.  13,  viii.  11,  x.  1);  but  their 
worship  was  impure  (iv.  13);  idolatrous  (iv.  17,  viii. 
4,  xiii.  2) — Baal-worship,  though  offered  to  Jehovah 
(ii.   13). 

The  high  places  are  denounced  (iv.  13),  Gilgal 
(iv.  15,  ix.  15.  xii.  11),  Gilead  (xii.  11).  The  worship 
of  the  calf  at  Bethel  (called  in  contempt  Bethaven)  is 
specially  attacked  (iv.  15,  viii.  5,  6,  x.  8,  x.  15). 
Israel  sought  to  conciliate  Jehovah  by  splendid  sanctu- 
aries, countless  altars  (viii.  11)  and  sacrifices.  Over 
against  this  trust  in  ritual  Jehovah  sets  His  demand 
for  righteousness  :  "  I  desire  mercy  and  not  sacrifice; 
and  the  knowledge  of  God  more  than  burnt  offering  " 
(vi.  6,  viii.  13). 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  19 

Besides  ritual,  Israel  still  trusted  in  his  own  power, 
in  his  chariots  and  the  multitude  of  his  warriors 
(x.  13) ;  he  had  forgotten  his  Maker  and  built  palaces 
(viii.  14). 

If  ritual  and  military  power  were  insufficient,  re- 
course was  had  to  foreign  allies,  Egypt  and  Assyria 
(vii.  11).  Hosea  strikes  another  keynote  of  subsequent 
prophecy  in  his  denunciation  of  these  alliances. 

In  complete  accordance  with  his  use  of  the  figure 
of  marriage  to  illustrate  the  relation  between  Jehovah 
and  Israel,  he  speaks  of  a  covenant  between  God  and 
His  People  (vi.  7,  viii.  1).  This  covenant  they  have 
transgressed  by  choosing  kings  and  rulers  without 
seeking  divine  counsel  (viii.  4),  and  by  entering  into  a 
covenant  with  Assyria  (xii.  1).  Even  the  monarchy 
itself  seems  to  be  condemned  as  an  ungodly  institu- 
tion (viii.  4,  10,  xiii.  10,  11),  and  the  sin  and  ruin  of 
Israel  are  dated  from  "  the  day  of  Gibeah "  when 
Saul  was  inaugurated  as  the  first  king  of  Israel* 
(ix.  9,  x,  9.     Cf.  1  Sam.  x.  26,  xi.  4,  xii.  12,  13). 

In  accordance  with  the  general  teaching  of  the 
O.  T.  as  to  the  close  connection  between  folly  and 
wickedness,  Hosea  attributes  much  of  the  sin  of 
Israel  to  its  indifference  to  the  knowledge  of  God, 
which  it  had  had  every  opportunity  of  attaining. 
"I  have  hewed  them  by  the  prophets;  I  have  slain 
them  by  the  words  of  My  mouth  :  and  My  (R.  V.  Mg.) 
judgment  goeth  forth  as  the  light.  For  I  desire 
.  .  .  the  knowledge  of  God  "  (vi.  5,  6).  "  I  wrote  for 
him  the  ten  thousand  things  of  My  law,  but  they 
are  counted  as  a  strange  thing"  (viii.  12.  Cf.  iv.  G). 
*  Smend,  194. 


20  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

Because  of  this  sin  and  wilful  ignorance,  Jehovah 
would  renounce  and  ruin  Israel.  To  symbolise  this 
judgment,  Hosea  named  his  children  "  Lo-ruhamah  " 
(Unpitied),  and  "  Lo-ammi  "  (Not  my  people).  Israel 
would  be  overthrown  by  Assyria,  and  carried  captive 
to  Assyria  and  Egypt  (vii.  16,  ix.  3,  xi.  5).  Yet  even 
now  Jehovah  shows  His  fatherly  affection  (xi.  2)  for 
Israel  by  His  reluctance  to  punish  and  His  yearning 
to  forgive  (xi.  8,  9 ;  xiv.).  While  Amos  sees  no 
future  hope  for  Israel,  Hosea  looks  forward  to  a 
restoration  of  his  people  in  righteousness  and  pros- 
perity (i.  10,  ii.  14-23,  hi.  5,  xiv.). 

Judah  is  only  dealt  with  in  casual  references.* 
iii.  Isaiah's  Call  and  Commission. — Though  Amos 
belonged  to  Judah,  his  message  was  almost  entirely 
addressed  to  Israel.  Isaiah  is,  in  the  strict  sense,  the 
first  great  prophet  of  Judah.  His  early  life,  before 
and  at  the  beginning  of  his  ministry,  was  spent  in 
the  prosperous  days  of  Uzziah  and  Jotham,  when 
Judah  shared  the  renewed  prosperity  of  Israel.  His 
call  (vi.)  shows  that,  like  Amos,  he  received  the 
revelation  that  Judah  was  unclean — i.e.,  failed  to 
attain  the  divine  standard  set  by  Jehovah  for  the 
life  of  His  people,  and  that  this  unclean n ess  alienated 
Jehovah  from  Judah.  When  experience  had  shown 
how  little  his  ministry  could  do  to  change  the  char- 
acter of  the  people,  he  realised  that  his  appeals  for 
repentance  and  amendment  had  only  hardened  their 
hearts,  filled  up  the  measure  of  their  iniquity,  and  so 
sealed  their  doom.  Here,  therefore,  we  meet  with 
another  important  feature  of  the  prophetic  teaching 
*  Often  supposed  to  be  editorial  additions. 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  21 

of  this  period — its  conviction  that  the  nation,  as  a 
whole,  was  incapable  of  any  radical  reformation,  and 
that  therefore  its  ruin  was  inevitable.  Chapter  vi. 
concludes  with  the  introduction  of  another  great 
prophetic  doctrine  which  somewhat  relieves  the  gloom 
— the  doctrine  of  the  Remnant.  The  nation  may 
be  hardened,  and  its  case  hopeless,  but  individuals 
will  hear  and  obey,  and  these  will  form  a  community, 
which  is  the  Remnant  of  the  Old  Israel  and  the  seed 
of  the  New.  Thus  chapter  vi.  contains  a  brief  state- 
ment of  the  main  elements*  of  Isaiah's  teaching. 
We  have  still,  however,  to  notice  how  these  were 
developed  in  the  course  of  his  career. 

iv.  Isaiah's  Message  to  Judah  in  the  Reign  of 
Ahaz,  B.C.  735. — The  picture  drawn  by  the  Jewish 
prophets  of  the  moral  and  religious  state  of  Judah 
is  not  essentially  different  from  the  account  given  of 
Israel  by  Amos  an  1  Hosea.  Isaiah  charges  the  Jews 
with  oppression  and  venality  on  the  part  of  judges 
and  rulers  (i.  21-23,  iii.  14,  15,  v.  7,  23,  x.  1-4); 
unscrupulous  avarice  (v.  8);  pride  (ii.  11,  v.  21); 
immoral  casuistry  (v.  20) ;  presumptuous  and  defiant 
sin  (v.  18, 19) ;  and  drunkenness  (v.  22).  He  specially 
charges  the  women  with  proud  and  wanton  luxury 
(iii.  16).  Judah  is  a  "sinful  nation,  a  people  laden 
with  iniquity,  a  seed  of  evil-doers,  children  that  deal 
corruptly"  (14). 

In  Judah,  as  in  Israel,  the  people  delight  in  pro- 
fuse ritual,  and  hope  thereby  to  conciliate  Jehovah, 
but    He    rejects    their    sacrifices    as    worthless,    an 

*  For  the  stress  laid  upon  the  character  of  Jehovah  as 
Qadosh,  E.V.  "Holy,"  see  §§  17. f. 


22  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

intolerable  abomination  (i.  10-17).  As  the  religious 
observances  with  which  Isaiah  was  most  familiar 
were  those  of  the  Temple,  he  naturally  does  not  refer 
to  the  high  places ;  except  by  implication  in  stating 
that  "the  land  is  full  of  idols"  (ii.  8) ;  and  in  speak- 
ing of  the  worship  under  oaks  and  in  gardens  (i.  29). 
Their  superstition,  however,  had  gone  beyond  trust 
in  ritual ;  they  delighted  also  in  magic  and  divination  ; 
"they  be  filled  with  customs  from  the  East,  and  are 
soothsayers  like  the  Philistines"  (ii.  6,  viii.  19). 

Isaiah  announces  "the  day  of  Jehovah,"  His  judg- 
ment upon  these  sins.  "  He  has  forsaken  His  people  " 
(ii.  6).  All  their  glory  and  pride  shall  be  laid  low 
(ii.  6-22).  "Jerusalem  is  ruined  and  Judah  is 
fallen  "  (iii.  8).  Jehovah's  vineyard  shall  be  trodden 
down  and  laid  waste :  "it  shall  not  be  pruned  nor 
hoed  ;  but  there  shall  come  up  briers  and  thorns  : 
I  will  also  command  the  clouds  that  they  rain  no 
rain  upon  it "  (vii.  6).  The  instrument  of  this  judg- 
ment will  be  "  the  nations  from  afar  "  (v.  26). 

Isaiah,  however,  does  not  merely  deal  with  the 
nation  as  a  whole  ;  he  personally  threatens  special 
classes  of  society,  the  rulers  (i.  23)  and  noble  ladies 
(iii.  16 — iv.  1) ;  and  special  types  of  sinners,  drunkards, 
etc.  (v.  8-25).  We  have  here  a  step  towards  the 
treatment  of  religion  as  regards  the  individual. 

The  alienation  between  Jehovah  and  Israel  is 
consciously  felt,  and  has  become  matter  for  discussion. 
Heaven  and  earth  are  called  upon  to  hear  Jehovah's 
charges  against  His  people  (i.  2),  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Jerusalem  and  Judah  are  appealed  to  to  judge 
between   Jehovah    and   His   vineyard   (v.    4).      Yet 


ISRAEL    IN  HISTORY  23 

Jehovah  Himself  is  the  Judge  (iii.  13).  In  "that 
Day,"  when  all  sinful  .splendour  and  pride  is  laid 
low,  He  alone  is  exalted  (ii.  11).  He  first  manifested 
Himself  to  Isaiah  as  the  Divine  King  in  His 
Heavenly  Temple,  surrounded  by  His  angelic  court 
of  Seraphim,  who  hailed  Him  as  the  unique  and 
supreme  God  (Qadosh,  see  §§17  ff.). 

v.  Isaiah  and  the  War  with  Syria  and  Ephraim 
(vii.-ix.). — In  Isa.  i.-vi.  the  prophet,  like  Amos 
and  Hosea,  concerns  himself  chiefly  with  the  moral 
and  religious  state  of  his  country.  In  the  following 
chapters  he  appears  as  the  successor  of  Elisha ;  a 
statesman  as  well  as  a  prophet,  taking  his  place  by 
the  side  of  the  king,  and  seeking  to  direct  him  in  the 
details  of  his  foreign  policy.  In  view  of  the  growing 
pressure  of  Assyria  upon  the  Syrian  states,  Rezin, 
king  of  Damascus,  and  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  sought 
to  compel  Ahaz  to  enter  into  a  league  to  resist  the 
common  enemy.  Ahaz  refused,  and  sought  the  aid 
of  Assyria  against  Rezin  and  Pekah. 

Isaiah  had  already  given  striking  expression  to 
his  doctrine  of  the  Remnant,  by  naming  his  son 
Shear- jashub  (a  remnant  shall  return).  When  Ahaz 
was  preparing  for  the  war  with  Syria  and  Samaria, 
Isaiah  went  to  meet  him,  accompanied  by  Shear- 
jashub,  whose  presence  would  be  symbolical,  and 
bade  the  king  :  "Take  heed  to  be  quiet" — i.e.,  abstain 
from  foreign  alliances — and  Jehovah  would  destroy 
Rezin  and  Pekah.  He  offered  Ahaz  any  sign  he 
chose  to  ask  for.  Ahaz  refused  to  ask  for  a  sign  ; 
whereupon  Isaiah  declared  that  the  sign  should  be 
that  when  a  maiden  already  pregnant  should  bear  a 


24  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

son,  the  Divine  Presence  should  have  been  so  fully 
manifested  that  she  might  call  him  Immanuel  (God 
with  us) ;  and  that,  before  he  was  weaned — i.e.,  within 
two  or  three  years — both  Rezin  and  Pekah  should  be 
slain  (vii.  14-16) ;  nevertheless,  Judah  itself  should 
be  wasted  and  desolate,  so  that  the  child  must  eat 
"  butter  and  honey." 

Ahaz,  however,  persisted  in  his  alliance  with 
Assyria,  and  Isaiah  announced  the  devastation  of 
the  country  by  Egypt  and  Assyria,  especially  Assyria 
(vii.  17-25,  viii.  8).  Nevertheless,  when  about  this 
time  another  son  was  born  to  Isaiah,  he  gave  him 
the  symbolic  name  of  Maher-shalal-hash-baz  (booty 
hastens,  spoil  speeds),  in  token  that,  before  the  child 
could  talk,  Damascus  and  Samaria  would  be  spoiled 
by  the  king  of  Assyria  (viii.  1-4). 

The  absence  of  any  wide  response  to  Isaiah's 
teaching  and  the  failure  of  his  protest  against  the 
Assyrian  alliance  taught  him  that  the  alienation 
between  Jehovah  and  Judah  meant  hostility  between 
prophet  and  people.  His  conduct  and  ideals  must 
contradict  theirs  (viii.  11-13),  and  the  God  who 
was  his  Inspirer  was  a  stumbling  block  and  a  snare 
to  his  hearers  (14).  For  the  present  his  warnings 
and  teachings  were  to  be  a  sealed  book  to  them,  but 
he  would  "  wait  on  Jehovah  "  (viii.  16,  17). 

Yet  the  Remnant  had  begun  to  form  itself  ;  Isaiah 
and  his  children  were  signs  and  wonders  in  Israel 
(viii.  18),  and  he  had  made  disciples.  Moreover,  some 
prospect  of  deliverance  might  be  discerned  beyond 
the  impending  calamities;  the  day  of  Immanuel  was 
at  hand  (vii.  14,  viii.  8),  when  a  worthy  son  of  David 


ISRAEL   TN  HISTORY  25 

(ix.  2-7)  should  reign  over  a  redeemed  and  purified 
Jerusalem  (i.  25-27.     Cf.  iv.). 

vi.  Isaiah  and  Israel. —  In  dealing  with  the 
fortunes  of  Judah  when  attacked  by  Rezin  and 
Pekah,  Isaiah  had  necessarily  announced  the  fate  of 
Israel — namely,  its  overthrow  by  Assyria  (vii.  8,  16, 
viii.  4).  Moreover,  Isaiah,  like  all  the  prophets, 
regarded  Israel  and  Judah  as  a  religious  and  national 
unity;  and  he  constantly  groups  them  together  in 
his  sentence  of  doom.  The  barren  vineyard,  which  is 
to  be  laid  waste,  is  "  the  house  of  Israel  and  the  men 
of  Judah  M  (v.  7) ;  Jehovah  is  a  "  stone  of  stumbling 
and  a  rock  of  offence  to  both  houses  of  Israel "  (viii. 
14).  But  Isaiah  also  deals  separately  with  the 
Northern  Kingdom.  In  xxviii.  3-8,  he  describes 
how  Ephraim — priests,  prophets,  and  people — had 
fallen  into  sin  and  folly  through  drunkenness ; 
wherefore,  "  The  crown  of  pride  of  the  drunkards  of 
Ephraim  shall  be  trodden  under  foot "  (xxviii.  3).  A 
similar  threat  of  coming  ruin  to  Israel  is  contained 
in  xvii.  1-11  ;  where,  apparently,  the  doctrine  of  the 
Remnant  is  applied  to  the  Northern  Kingdom  (xvii.  6). 

vii.  Micah  and  Israel,  before  B.C.  722. — In  ac- 
cordance with  the  heading,  which  describes  the  book 
as  :  "  The  word  of  Jehovah  which  came  to  Micah 
concerning  Samaria  and  Jerusalem,"  Micah's  utter- 
ances concerning  the  two  kingdoms  are  very  closely 
combined,  and  his  treatment  of  them  is  very  similar  ; 
but  it  will  be  convenient  to  consider  his  teaching  as 
to  Israel,  first,  as  part  of  the  prelude  to  the  Fall  of 
Samaria  j  and  to  defer  his  words  on  Judah  till  after 
that  event,  and  to  take  them  as  part  of  the  prophetic 


26  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

preparation  for  the  great  deliverance  from  Senna- 
cherib. Micah  agrees  with  the  other  prophets  in  his 
picture  of  the  social,  political,  and  religious  corruption 
of  Israel  (i.  6,  7,  ii.  1-6,  hi),  but  deals  with  the 
subject  more  briefly  and  generally.  He  announces 
the  imminent  and  utter  ruin  of  Samaria :  "I  will 
make  Samaria  as  an  heap  of  the  field,  and  as  the 
plantings  of  a  vineyard  "  (i.  6). 

viii.  The  Fall  of  Samaria,  b.c.  722. — The  course 
of  history  after  the  death  of  Jeroboam  II.  followed 
the  lines  indicated  by  the  prophets.  The  attack  of 
Rezin  and  Pekah  upon  Judah  collapsed  through  the 
interference  of  Assyria,  and  Judah  was  delivered 
after  enduring  much  misery.  First  Damascus,  and 
then  Samaria,  was  conquered  by  the  Assyrian,  and 
the  Syrian  and  Israelite  population  carried  away  into 
captivity.  This  series  of  events  is  of  supreme  signifi- 
cance for  the  religion  of  Israel.  It  confirmed  in  many 
ways  the  teaching  of  the  prophets,  and  established 
the  authority  of  Isaiah,  their  great  living  representa- 
tive. It  discredited  the  ancient  doctrine  of  a  bond 
between  Jehovah  and  Israel,  which  guaranteed  the 
inviolability  of  the  Sacred  Land  and  the  Chosen 
People.  Hitherto,  as  the  usage  of  the  word  Israel 
implies,  the  Northern  Kingdom  had  stood  for  Israel, 
both  in  political  power  and  religious  importance. 
Judah  had  no  prophets  like  Elijah  and  Elisha ;  the 
first  decisive  victory  of  Jehovah  over  Baal  was  won 
at  Jezreel,  not  at  Jerusalem.  Thus,  in  a  sense,  the 
overthrow  of  Samaria  was  the  ruin  of  Israel,  of  the 
Chosen  People  of  Jehovah,  If  the  ancient  doctrine 
had  still  prevailed,  according  to  which  the  glory  and 


ISRAEL    IX  HISTORY  27 

existence  of  Jehovah  were  bound  up  with  those  of 
Israel,  Jehovah  must  have  perished  with  His  People. 
But  the  teaching  of  the  prophets  had  made  it  possible 
to  believe  in  Jehovah  even  when  Israel  was  destroyed. 
The  great  catastrophe  happened  in  accordance  with, 
and  not  in  spite  of,  the  Divine  Purpose :  it  was  proof, 
not  of  His  impotence,  but  of  His  power.  Moreover, 
Jehovah  can  not  merely  use  His  own  people  to  defeat 
and  subdue  other  nations ;  He  can  also  use  Assyria 
and  Egypt  to  punish  Israel.  He  is,  therefore,  Lord 
of  all  nations.  Thus  the  Fall  of  Samaria  breaks  the 
ancient  theory  of  the  relation  between  Jehovah  and 
Israel,  and  marks  the  first  step  towards  a  universal 
and  individual  religion.* 

ix.  Micah  and  Judah. — The  attention  of  the 
prophets  was  now  concentrated  upon  Judah ;  they 
pointed  to  the  fate  of  Samaria  as  an  awful  warning 
to  the  Southern  Kingdom.  Micah  describes  the  sin 
of  Judah  in  similar  terms  to  the  other  prophets,  and 
announces  the  impending  ruin  of  Jerusalem  in  words 
partly  identical  with  those  he  had  used  of  Samaria. 
"  Therefore  shall  Zion  for  your  sake  be  plowed  as 
a  field,  and  Jerusalem  shall  become  heaps,  and  the 
mountain  of  the  house — the  Temple — as  the  high 
places  of  a  forest"  (hi.  12).  The  doctrine  of  the 
restoration  of  the  Remnant  of  Israel  is  found  in 
ii.  12.  Israel  here  probably  includes  both  Israel 
proper  and  Judah.     (Of.  iv.  5.) 

x.  Isaiah    and   the   Assyrians,    b.c.    722-701. — 
Under   Ahaz,    Judah    had    become    a     tributary   of 
Assyria,    and    had    procured    its    intervention,    thus 
*  Smend,  160. 


28  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

doing  much  to  hasten  the  ruin  of  Samaria.  The 
interests  of  Judah  demanded  that  it  should  continue 
loyal  to  its  suzerain.  On  the  other  hand,  Hezekiah  — 
who  had  now  succeeded  Ahaz — was  exposed  to  many 
temptations  to  revolt.  The  neighbouring  Syrian 
states  sought  to  involve  Judah  in  a  confederacy 
against  Assyria.  Merodach-baladan,  tributary  king 
of  Babylon,  sought  Iiezekiah's  aid  against  Sargon 
(xxxix.) ;  and,  above  all,  Egypt  continually  tried  to 
stir  up  Judah  and  its  neighbours  against  Assyria. 
Isaiah  set  himself  to  counteract  these  inducements : 
he  rebuked  Hezekiah  for  the  favourable  reception 
given  to  the  Babylonian  ambassadors  (xxxix.  G,  7), 
and  vehemently  opposed  any  proposals  for  alliance 
with  Egypt  (xix.,  xx.).  Their  trust  in  the  material 
strength  of  Egypt  implied  a  lack  of  faith  in  Jehovah. 
"  Woe  to  them  that  go  down  to  Egypt  for  help,  and 
rely  on  horses ;  and  trust  in  chariots,  because  they  are 
many,  and  in  horsemen,  because  they  are  very  strong, 
but  they  look  not  unto  the  Holy  One  of  Israel, 
neither  seek  Jehovah.  .  .  .  Now  the  Egyptians  are 
men,  and  not  God  :  and  their  horses  flesh,  and  not 
spirit"  (xxxi.  1,  3).  Their  confidence  in  Egypt  would 
merely  betray  them  to  their  ruin.  "  When  Jehovah 
shall  stretch  out  His  hand,  both  he  that  helpeth 
shall  stumble,  and  he  that  is  holpen  shall  fall,  and 
they  shall  all  fail  together  "  (xxxi.  3). 

Thus  the  objection  to  foreign  alliances,  which  had 
led  Isaiah  to  protest  against  the  appeal  of  Ahaz  to 
Assyria,  was  now  applied  to  Egypt ;  and  henceforth 
hostility  to  Egypt  was  an  important  element  of 
prophetic  teaching.     There  came  to  be  two  parties 


ISRAEL   IiV  HISTORY  29 

in  Jerusalem,  the  Egyptian  party  and  the  party  of 
the  prophets ;  and  the  opposition  between  the  two 
was  personal  (xxii.  15-19),  as  well  as  political  and 
religious. 

For  the  present,  however,  the  strength  and  salva- 
tion of  Judah  lay  in  repentance,  in  trust  in  Jehovah, 
and  in  rest  and  quietness  (xxx.  15)—  i.e.,  in  the  quiet 
acceptance  of  present  political  condition  by  submitting 
to  Assyria.  For  some  years  Isaiah  succeeded  in 
inducing  Hezekiah  to  maintain  this  attitude.  There 
is,  however,  no  indication  that  Isaiah  discerned  any 
moral  or  religious  improvement  in  the  nation. 

xi.  The  Revolt  against  Assyria,  b.c.  705. — At 
last,  however,  the  temptation  to  revolt  became  too 
strong  to  be  resisted.  Under  the  united  pressure  of 
Egypt,  a  powerful  combination  of  Syrian  states,  and 
the  Egyptian  party  in  Jerusalem,  Hezekiah  gave  way 
and  joined  in  the  revolt  against  Assyria. 

This  rejection  of  Jehovah's  counsel  on  the  part  of 
king  and  people  revealed  to  Isaiah  afresh  the  deep- 
seated  corruption  of  Judah.  Its  sin  would  bring 
speedy  chastisement :  "  Woe  to  Ariel,  to  Ariel,  the 
city  where  David  encamped.  ...  I  will  distress 
Ariel,  and  there  shall  be  mourning  and  lamentation  " 
(xxix.  i.  2).  Its  Egyptian  allies  would  be  useless: 
"  The  strength  of  Pharaoh  shall  be  your  shame, 
and  the  trust  in  the  shadow  of  Egypt  your  confusion  " 
(xxx.  3).  Both  Egypt  and  Judah  would  be  over- 
thrown and  reduced  to  the  last  extremity  of  distress 
(xxxi.  3). 

Nevertheless,  in  this  last  extremity  Judah  should 
be  delivered ;  Jerusalem  should  not  be  taken  by  the 


30  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

invader,  but  a  great  calamity  should  fall  upon 
Sennacherib,  and  send  him  home  foiled  and  dis- 
honoured (x.  24-34,  xiv.  24-27,  xxix.  1-8,  xxx.  31-33, 
xxxi.  8,  9). 

xii.  The  Deliverance  from  Sennacherib,  b.c. 
701. — Sennacherib  advanced  into  Syria,  overthrew 
the  Syrians,  defeated  the  Egyptians,  ravaged  Judah, 
and  captured  its  fortresses.  Hezekiah  offered  to 
submit,  and  complied  with  one  demand  after  another, 
till  at  last  he  drew  the  line  at  the  surrender  of  his 
capital,  and  stood  at  bay,  encouraged  by  Isaiah's 
promises  of  deliverance.  The  deliverance  came,  the 
Assyrian  army  was  smitten  and  destroyed  by  the 
Angel  of  Jehovah,  and  Sennacherib  returned  to 
Nineveh. 

In  its  importance  for  the  history  of  religion,  this 
great  deliverance  ranks  with  the  Exodus,  the  Con- 
quest, and  the  Fall  of  Samaria.  It  confirmed  afresh 
the  authority  of  Isaiah  and  of  the  divine  revelation 
given  through  the  prophets.  It  secured  a  respite  for 
Judah,  during  which  true  religion  became  too  firmly 
rooted  to  be  torn  up  and  destroyed  by  the  exile. 

Like  the  other  supreme  interventions  of  Jehovah 
on  behalf  of  His  people,  it  is  in  no  sense  a  reward  of 
any  righteousness  of  theirs  :  Isaiah  does  not  connect 
it  with  Hezekiah's  reformation.  Jehovah  defends 
the  city,  "for  My  own  sake  and  for  My  servant 
David's  sake  "  (xxxvii.  35).  He  also  overthrows  the 
Assyrian,  because,  though  they  were  only  the  rod 
with  which  Jehovah  chastised  His  People,  they 
thought  they  had  conquered  in  their  own  strength ; 
they  became  uplifted  with  pride,  and  even  supposed 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  31 

they  had  overcome  Jehovah  as  well  as  'Judah 
(x.  5-16,  xxxvi.  19,  20,  xxxvii.  12-29.  Jehovah 
thus  manifested  afresh  His  supremacy  over  the 
nations ;  the  great  empires  were  merely  His  weapons, 
which,  when  they  ceased  to  serve  His  purposes,  He 
destroyed  and  cast  away. 

xiii.  Hezekiah's  Reformation  (2  Kings  xviii.  4). — 
Isaiah  would  make  use  of  his  influence,  not  only  to 
direct  the  politics  of  Judah,  but  also  to  raise  its 
social  and  religious  life.  The  time  for  which  he  had 
waited  (viii.  17)  had  arrived,  and  no  doubt  his  dis- 
ciples (viii.  16)  increased  in  number.  There  came  to 
be  an  appreciable  minority  in  Judah,  who  sought 
to  live  the  higher  life  demanded  by  the  prophets,  and 
were  helped  to  do  so  by  Isaiah's  teaching  as  to  the 
nature  and  grace  of  Jehovah.  Moreover,  Isaiah  was 
able  in  some  measure,  to  carry  out  his  views  as  to 
the  externals  of  worship.  The  Book  of  Kings  tells 
us  that  Hezekiah  "  removed  the  high  places,  brake 
the  Jlcitfeboth,  cut  down  the  Ashera,  and  brake  in 
pieces  the  brazen  serpent  that  Moses  had  made  ;•  for 
unto  those  days  the  Israelites  burnt  incense  to  it. 
and  it  was  called  Nehushtan."  Nothing  is  said  about 
the  exact  date  of  these  proceedings,  which  may  have 
been  spread  over  a  considerable  period,  perhaps  over 
the  whole  of  Hezekiah's  reign.  It  is  natural  to 
suppose  that  they  originated  in  the  renewal  of  Isaiah's 
influence  after  the  deliverance  from  Sennacherib ; 
but  even  if  they  began  earlier,  that  great  event  would 
rouse  the  king  to  new  activity.  The  connection  of 
this  Reformation  with  Isaiah's  teaching  is  best  seen 
in  the  destruction  of  idols,  of  which  Nehushtan  may 


32  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

be  taken  as  an  illustration.  Isaiah,  following  Amos 
(v.  26,  and  Hosea  viii.  5,  etc.),  constantly  denounces 
the  use  of  idols  (ii.  8,  18,  etc.).  The  almost  entire 
silence  of  Isaiah  as  to  the  high  places,  makes  it 
improbable  that  Hezekiah's  action  against  them  was 
very  persistent,  and  the  account  of  the  next  reforma- 
tion shows  that  he  can  only  have  been  very  partially 
successful  lin  dealing  either  with  high  places  or  with 
idols  (2  Kings  xxiii.  4-14.  Moreover,  the  reaction 
under  Manasseh  showed  that  Hezekiah's  reformation 
had  produced  very  little  effect  on  Jewish  minds 
generally.  It  was  probably  regarded  as  an  innova- 
tion, and  at  the  king's  death  his  policy  was  reversed 
in  an  outburst  of  popular  fanaticism.  As  Isaiah 
himself  had  foreseen,  the  permanent  result  of  his 
work  lay  in  the  Remnant,  the  little  band  of  believers 
which  was  slowly  being  gleaned  out  of  the  wreck  of 
Jehovah's  vineyard. 

5.  Publication  of  Deuteronomy,  i.  The  Reaction 
under  Manasseh  and  Amon(2  Kings  xxi.). — Manasseh 
seems  not  merely  to  have  reversed  his  father's  policy 
and  restored  the  ancient  religious  customs  of  Judah. 
He  devoted  himself  with  superstitious  zeal  to  the 
cruel  worship  of  Moloch,  to  whom  he  sacrificed  his  son. 
He  practised  a  wider  eclecticism  than  his  predecessors, 
and  even  set  up  altars  for  "  all  the  host  of  heaven  '' 
in  the  temple  courts.  His  government  seems  to  have 
been  exceptionally  bad,  "  He  shed  very  much  innocent 
blood,  till  he  had  filled  Jerusalem  from  one  end  to  the 
other"  (xxi.  16).  Political  and  religious  partisanship 
were  closely  combined  :  the  true  prophets  and  their 
followers  would  denounce  and  oppose  Manasseh  ;  they 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  33 

were  not  likely  to  be  spared  when  the  king  was 
shedding  innocent  blood  in  profusion.  Thus  at  the 
very  outset  of  its  career,  the  Remnant  was  puri- 
fied and  strengthened  by  suffering  and  persecution. 
Later  prophets  saw  in  the  crimes  of  Manasseh  the 
unpardonable  sin  that  ensured  the  ruin  of  Judah 
(Jer.  xv.  4). 

ii.  Zephaniah,  cir.  B.C.  630;  Nahum,  cir.  B.C.  625  (?). 
The  Fall  of  Nineveh. — During  the  minority  of 
Josiah,  the  prophetic  party  regained  their  influence 
in  the  state.  The  violence  and  cruelty  of  Manasseh 
mast  have  told  in  their  favour  :  and  in  this  period 
there  was  a  fresh  outbreak  of  prophetic  activity, 
represented  by  the  writings  of  Zephaniah,  Nahum, 
Habakkuk,  and  some  of  the  earlier  prophecies  of 
Jeremiah. 

Zephaniah  follows  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  Isaiah 
in  his  picture  of  the  corruptions  of  Judah,  and  of  the 
Day  of  Jehovah  in  which  these  corruptions  shall  be 
chastised.  In  this  Day  of  Judgment,  not  only  will 
Assyria  (ii.  13)  be  overthrown,  but  Jehovah  will  pour 
out  His  fierce  anger  upon  all  the  nations  of  the 
earth  (iii.  8).  There  is  to  be  a  redeemed  remnant 
of  Judah  (ii.  7,  9)  and  of  Israel  (iii.  13).  These 
prophecies  of  judgment  like  those  in  Jer.  i.  11-19, 
are  often  connected  with  the  Scythian  inroad,  which 
devastated  Western  Asia  in  the  early  part  of  Josiah's 
reign. 

Nahum  exults  over  the  impending  ruin  of  Nineveh 
and  the  release  of  Judah  from  the  Assyrian  yoke. 
Nineveh  perishes  because  it  is  morally  corrupt,  a 
"  bloody  city,  all  full  of  lies  and  robbery  "  (iii.  1),  and 

3 


34  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

because  it  is  the  "  adversary  of  Jehovah  "  (i.  1) — i.e., 
because  it  has  oppressed  Judah.  Thus  Nahum  strikes 
an  entirely  different  note  to  Isaiah  and  his  followers. 
He  has  no  message  concerning  the  sin  and  doom 
of  Judah,  Assyria  is  not  Jehovah's  instrument  in 
punishing  the  guilty,  but  is  denounced  as  the  wicked 
oppressor  of  His  Chosen  People.  Instead  of  heralding 
judgment  upon  a  nation  whose  insincere  worship  is 
rejected  by  Jehovah,  Nahum  cries  :  "  Behold  upon 
the  mountains  the  feet  of  Him  that  bringeth  good 
tidings,  that  publisheth  peace  !  Keep  thy  feasts,  O 
Judah,  perform  thy  vows :  for  the  wicked  one — the 
Assyrian  oppressor — shall  no  more  pass  through  thee  : 
he  is  utterly  cut  off"  (i.  15).  Nevertheless,  Nahum 
agrees  with  the  other  prophets  in  this  one  essential 
point :  that  Nineveh  is  condemned,  not  merely  or 
chiefly  in  the  interests  of  Judah,  but  because  it  is 
itself  morally  corrupt. 

In  the  early  years  of  Josiah's  reign  the  course  of 
events  was  rapidly  bringing  about  the  fulfilment  of 
the«e  and  previous  prophecies.  The  Scythian  inroad 
broke  the  strength  of  the  Assyrian  Empire,  and 
though  Nineveh  itself  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
taken  till  about  B.C.  605,  yet  its  dominion  was 
reduced  to  great  straits  pome  years  before,  and  its 
ruin  was  obviously  impending.  Jehovah  had  justified 
the  claim  which  the  prophets  had  made  on  His 
behalf,  that  He  was  Lord  of  the  lords  and  King 
of  the  kings  of  the  world. 

iii.  The  Publication  of  Deuteronomy  and  the 
Reformation  of  Josiah,  b.c.  621  (2  Kings  xxii.,  xxiii.). 
— The  weakness  of  Assyria  allowed  Judah  to  regain 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  35 

its  independence,  and  to  recover  something  of  its  old 
power  and  prosperity.  Josiah  even  exercised  some 
amount  of  sway  over  the  former  territory  of  Israel 
(xxiii.  15-20).  The  collapse  of  Assyria  would  confirm 
Josiah  in  his  religions  policy,  and  encourage  him  to 
renew  Hezekiah's  attempt  to  make  Judah  loyal  to  the 
will  of  Jehovah  as  revealed  by  His  prophets.  This 
new  reformation  was  inaugurated  by  a  covenant  to 
observe  the  law  as  laid  down  in  a  roll  discovered  in 
the  Temple  while  it  wras  under  repair  in  B.C.  621. 
This  roll  seems  to  have  contained  the  "  kernel  of 
Deuteronomy" — i.e.,  the  laws,  etc.,  of  the  central 
chapters  of  that  book. 

iv.  The  Abolition  of  Idols. — Josiah  dealt  with 
both  the  idols  and  the  high  places  more  thoroughly 
and — for  the  time  at  any  rate — with  more  success 
than  Hezekiah.  Deuteronomy  not  only  forbade 
"  graven  images "  (pesel),  (v.  8),  but  also  the 
marcebas  and  asheras  (xii.  3,  xvi.  21,  22),  and  all 
worship  of  "other  gods"  (xiii.  1-8).  Accordingly 
Josiah  destroyed  all  the  apparatus  for  such  worship 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  4-15). 

v.  The  Suppression  of  the  High  Places. — The 
accounts  of  Manasseh's  idolatry  and  Josiah's  reforma- 
tion show  that  in  the  matter  of  the  use  of  idols  and 
other  corruptions  of  worship  there  was  nothing  to 
choose  between  the  Temple  and  the  high  places. 
At  the  same  time  ritual  purity  could  more  easily 
be  maintained  at  a  single  conspicuous  sanctuary  in 
the  capital  under  the  eye  of  the  king  and  the 
prophets,  than  at  a  number  of  high  places  scattered 
through  the  country,  some  of  which  were  probably 


36  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

the  obscure  homes  of  nameless  abominations.     More- 
over, the  limitation  of  sacrifice  to  a  single  sanctuary 
was   an   effectual   check   to   the   popular  faith  in   a 
profusion   of   ritual.     Such   a   limitation   necessarily 
involved  a  reduction  of  the  quantity  of  ritual,  and 
tended  to  direct  attention  to  its  quality  and  spirit. 
Moreover,  the  course  of  events  seemed  to  indicate  a 
divine   judgment   on   the   high  places,  and  a  divine 
choice  of   Jerusalem  and  the  central  Temple.     The 
high  places  of  Samaria  perished  in  the  overthrow  of 
Israel :  those  of  Judah  had  suffered  in  the  invasion 
of  Sennacherib,  while  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  had 
remained    untouched.       While    the    elder    prophets 
never  condemn  the  high  places  on  the  ground    that 
the   Temple   was   the   only   legitimate   sanctuary  of 
Jehovah,    nevertheless    they   seemed    to    indicate    a 
certain  preference  for  the  Temple.    The  preoccupation 
of  Amos  and  Hosea  with  Israel  prevented  them  from 
dealing   with    the   corruption    of    the   Temple;    and 
though    Micah    announced    the    destruction   of    the 
Temple  on  account  of  the  sins  of  the  priests,  prophets, 
and  people  of  Jerusalem,  no  such  definite  condemna- 
tion of  the  Temple  is  found  in  any  extant  prophecy 
of   Isaiah  or  Zephaniah.     Moreover,   the  favourable 
attitude  of  the  prophets  toward  the  Temple  is  not 
merely  shown  by  their  comparative  silence  as  to  the 
corruptions  of  its   worship.     Though  they  say  little 
of   the   Temple   itself,  the  stress  laid  on   Jehovah's 
connection  with  Jerusalem  implies  His  special  presence 
in  its  shrine.     According  to  Amos  i.  2,  Jehovah  roars 
from   Zion,   and   utters   His    voice   from   Jerusalem. 
Isaiah    prophesied    the    escape    of    Jerusalem    from 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  37 

Sennacherib,  and  even  if  the  temple  in  Tsa.  vi. 
and  Micah  i.  2  meant  originally  Jehovah's  heavenly 
house,  these  references  would  inevitably  be  understood 
of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  The  origin  and  date  of 
the  prophecy  which  occurs  both  as  Micah  iv.  1-4, 
and  as  Isa.  ii.  1-4,  are  too  disputed  to  allow  us  to 
use  it  as  evidence  for  this  period,  but  it  might  serve 
to  express  the  unique  importance  which  the  Temple 
was  now  acquiring. 

Thus  many  influences— the  course  alike  of  history 
and  revelation,  the  pride  of  Jerusalem  in  its  Temple 
and  of  the  king  in  his  royal  sanctuary — combined  to 
facilitate  the  suppression  of  the  high  places,  and  the 
exaltation  of  the  Temple  as  the  only  legitimate  seat 
of  sacrifice.  As  far  as  extant  documents  are  con- 
cerned, the  divine  authority  for  this  revolution  is 
found,  not  in  any  prophetic  utterance,  but  in 
Deut.  xii.  1-16,  xvi. — e.g.,  xii.  13,  14:  "Take  heed 
to  thyself  that  thou  offer  not  thy  burnt-offerings 
in  every  place  that  thou  seest :  but  in  the  place 
which  Jehovah  shall  choose  in  one  of  thy  tribes — 
i.e.,  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem — there  thou  shalt 
offer  thy  burnt -offerings,  and  there  thou  shalt  do 
all  that  I  command  thee." 

Accordingly,  Josiah  "  denied  the  high  places  .  .  . 
from  Geba  to  Beer-sheba  ;  and  brake  down  the  high 
places  of  the  gates  that  were  at  the  entering  in  of  the 
gate  of  Joshua,  the  governor  of  the  city  .  .  .  and  the 
high  places  in  front  of  Jerusalem  .  .  .  which  Solomon 
built  for  Ashtoreth  .  .  .  Chemosh  .  .  .  and  Milcom 
.  .  .  did  the  king  defile  ...  he  brake  down  the  altar 
and  the  high  place  at  Bethel  .   .  .  and  overthrew  all 


38  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

the  houses  of  the  high  places  in  the  cities  of  Samaria  " 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  8,  13,  15,  20). 

vi.    The    Priests    of    the    High    Places. — The 
suppression  of  the  high  places  deprived  their  numer- 
ous priests — i.e.,  Levites — of  employment  and  susten- 
ance.    Deuteronomy  contains  ordinances  intended  to 
provide  for  them.     These  Levites  are  recommended  to 
the  people  as  suitable  objects  of  charitable  hospitality 
(xii.    19,  xiv.  27-29).      Moreover,  xvhi.  6-8    directs 
that  the  country    Levites — the   priests   of   the   high 
places — may  come  to  Jerusalem  and  "  minister  in  the 
name   of  Jehovah    his   God,  as   all   his  brethren  the 
Levites  do,  which  stand  there  before  Jehovah.     They 
shall    have   like   portions   to  eat,  beside  that   which 
cometh  of  the  sale  of  his  patrimony" — i.e.,  the  priests 
of  the  high  places  might  claim  to  be  admitted  to  all 
the  rights  and  emoluments  of  the  Temple  priesthood. 
Naturally,    such    an    arrangement    would    be    very 
unwelcome  to  the  priests  of  Jerusalem,  and   it  was 
never   carried   out.     Josiah  slew   the   priests  of  the 
Israelite  high  places  upon  their  own  altars  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  20) ;  the  priests  of  the  Jewish  high  places  were 
brought  to  Jerusalem  and  allowed  to  "  eat  unleavened 
bread  among  their  brethren,"  but  they  were  excluded 
from  the  priestly  ministrations. 

vii.  The  Prophets  (xviii.  15-22). — It  is  promised 
according  to  the  request  of  the  people  at  Horeb,  that 
God  will  communicate  His  will  to  the  people  by 
prophets  like  Moses.  The  prophet  that  spoke  with- 
out divine  authority  or  in  the  name  of  other  gods 
"  shall  die."  The  false  prophet  is  known  by  the  non- 
fulfilment  of  the  predictions  which  he  has  uttered. 


ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY  39 

viii.  Other  Ordinances,  etc. — In  other  respects 
Deuteronomy  partly  reproduces  and  expands  earlier 
(JE)  codes  and  forms  an  intermediate  stage  in  the 
transition  from  them  to  the  Levitical  Law.  In 
accordance  with  the  prophetic  teaching,  its  aim 
throughout  is  to  purify  and  limit  ritual,  and  to 
promote  honourable  and  generous  dealings  between 
man  and  man,  and  reverent  and  trustful  loyalty 
towards  God.  One  motive  assigned  for  obedience  is 
the  divine  election  of  Israel  to  be  His  special  posses- 
sion (Sgulla)  a  people  consecrated  (E.V.  "  holy ")  to 
Himself  (vii.  6,  xiv.  2,  xxvi.  18,  19),  a  conception  of 
the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  closely  allied  to  that 
of  the  covenant  (§  14,  vi.). 

ix.  The  Divine  Unity. — The  leading  features  of 
Josiah's  Reformation  and  of  the  teaching  of  Deu- 
teronomy tend  to  emphasise  and  safeguard  a  faith  in 
monotheism.  The  disuse  of  idols,  marrebas,  asheras, 
and  other  semi-heathen  apparatus  and  ritual,  drew  a 
sharp  distinction  between  Jehovah  and  "  other  gods," 
and  effectually  promoted  obedience  to  the  prophetic 
and  Deuteronomic  prohibition  of  the  worship  of 
"  other  gods."  As  in  popular  Romanism,  the  Virgin 
tends  to  be  multiplied,  so  that  Our  Lady  of  one  town 
is  almost  regarded  as  a  separate  personality  from  Our 
Lady  of  another ;  so  the  Baal  of  one  shrine  had  come 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  Baal  of  another  and  O.  T. 
speaks  of  the  Baalim.  A  similar  multiplication  of 
Jehovah  might  easily  have  taken  place — e.g.,  Jehovah 
Jireh  might  have  been  distinguished  from  Jehovah 
Nissi.  The  limitation  of  the  worship  of  Jehovah  to  a 
single  sanctuary  was  an   effectual   safeguard  against 


40  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

this  danger.  One  sanctuary,  and  one  only,  was  a 
perfect  symbol  of  the  Divine  Unity,  a  constant  pro- 
clamation of  the  Deuteronomic  watchword,  "  Jehovah 
our  God,  Jehovah  is  One  "  (vi.  4). 

x.  The  Doctrine  of  Forgiveness. — A  somewhat 
remarkable  situation  was  created  by  the  Covenant 
which  adopted  Deuteronomy  as  an  inspired  code  for 
Judah.  The  reign  of  Manasseh  and  the  early  years 
of  Josiah  had  been  condemned  by  the  prophets; 
Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah  had  declared  in  the  begin- 
ning of  Josiah's  reign  that  Jehovah  would  visit  Judah 
with  condign  punishment,  if  not  with  utter  ruin.  As 
yet,  however,  this  punishment  was  in  suspense. 
Moreover  in  2  Kings  xxii.  15-17,  we  read  that,  when 
Huldah  the  prophetess  was  consulted  with  regard  to 
the  threats  in  Deuteronomy,  she  replied:  "Thus 
saith  Jehovah,  Behold,  I  will  bring  evil  upon  this 
place,  and  upon  the  inhabitants  thereof,  even  all  the 
words  of  the  book  which  the  king  of  Judah  hath  read, 
because  they  have  forsaken  Me,  and  have  burned 
incense  unto  other  gods,  that  they  might  provoke  Me 
to  anger  with  all  the  work  of  their  hands ;  therefore 
My  wrath  shall  be  kindled  against  this  place  and  it 
shall  not  be  quenched." 

Nevertheless,  under  the  shadow  of  this  sentence  of 
doom,  king  and  people  entered  into  covenant  with 
Jehovah,  and  proceeded  to  carry  out  their  share 
of  it  with  great  zeal  and  energy.  The  editor  of 
the  Book  of  Kings  declares  that  their  devotion  was 
futile,  and  almost  implies  that  Jehovah  met  this 
covenant  by  an  explicit  announcement  of  the  coming 
captivity, 


ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY  41 

We  must  remember,  however,  that  the  Book  of 
Kings  was  compiled  under  the  influence  of  the  over- 
whelming impression  made  upon  the  Jewish  mind  by 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple,  and  the 
exile  of  the  People.  Josiah's  reign  and  all  the  events 
immediately  preceding  the  Captivity  are  there  described 
chiefly  in  their  relation  to  the  final  catastrophe.  This 
probably  determined  the  selection  of  material  for  the 
Books  of  Kings  and  Jeremiah,  as  well  as  the  point  of 
view  from  which  the  editorial  notes  in  the  former 
book  are  written. 

The  attitude  of  contemporaries  must  have  been 
different.  Obviously  the  covenant  and  reformation 
would  have  been  impossible,  if  the  people  had  under- 
stood that  their  fate  was  sealed  and  their  ruin  inevit- 
able. No  explicit  account  has  been  preserved  of  the 
hopes  and  promises  by  which  the  covenant  was 
accompanied ;  but  there  is  much  in  the  teaching  of 
Jeremiah  which  may  fairly  represent  them.  Jeremiah 
(iv.  2, etc.)  constantly  promises  forgiveness  and  deliver- 
ance, as  the  reward  of  repentance  and  amendment, 
such  as  this  covenant  symbolised.  Neither  are  these 
promises  always  qualified  by  any  statement  that 
some  measure  of  punishment  must  be  endured  before 
Judah  can  enjoy  Jehovah's  favour.  The  teaching, 
therefore,  of  Jeremiah,  which  is  virtually  assumed 
in  Josiah's  reforms,  is  that  Jehovah  meets  and  blesses 
the  repentant  sinner  in  the  first  moment  of  his  re- 
pentance. Previous  threats  were  conditional ;  they 
assumed  that  the  sinner  would  persevere  in  his  evil 
ways,  and  are  therefore  annulled  by  his  penitence. 
Josiah — probably  with  the  sanction,  or  even  at  the 


42  JEHOVAH  AND  \1SRAEL 

suggestion,  of  Jeremiah — instituted  the  covenant,  in 
the  hope  that  his  reforms  would  be  accompanied 
by  national  repentance  and  amendment,  and  would 
inaugurate  a  new  era  of  national  righteousness. 
Jeremiah,  no  doubt,  assured  the  people  that  such  a 
reformation  would  be  accepted  by  Jehovah  and  would 
insure  the  safety  and  prosperity  of  Judah.  The 
religious  significance  of  these  events  is  partly  inde- 
pendent of  their  sequel.  They  involved  a  declaration 
of  the  divine  willingness  to  forgive  the  repentant 
sinner,  who  is  earnestly  bent  on  amendment.  Here, 
as  elsewhere,  the  sinner  is  the  nation ;  it  is  a  question 
of  national  guilt  and  forgiveness ;  but  the  principle 
applies  mutatis  mutandis  to  the  individual;  though 
for  the  earliest  application  of  it  to  the  individual  we 
must  wait  till  a  later  stage  in  the  history. 

xi.  The  Beginning  of  the  Canon. — Though  con- 
siderable portions  of  the  0.  T.  existed  before  B.C.  621, 
yet  Josiah's  covenant  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
O.  T.  Canon,  in  the  sense  that  Deuteronomy  was 
then,  and  has  ever  since  been,  recognised  as  an 
authoritative  divine  revelation.  Hitherto  the  Torah, 
or  revelation  of  the  divine  will,  had  been  sought 
from  the  living  words  of  priests  and  prophets ;  now 
it  began  to  take  the  form  of  a  written  Law.  For  the 
present,  however,  the  inspired  prophet  continued  to 
exercise  a  much  greater  authority  than  the  inspired 
writing.  No  prophet  before  Malachi  (iv.  4)  refers  to 
the  written  Torah  as  an  authority ;  though,  possibly, 
the  statement  that  Ezekiel  (ii.  9,  iii.  3)  swallowed  a 
roll  symbolises  his  dependence  on  Deuteronomy.  On 
the   other   hand   the   editor  of  the   Book   of   Kings 


ISRAEL   IX  HISTORY  43 

clearly   recognises   Deuteronomy  as  the  standard  of 
national  life  (2  Kings  xviii.  6,  xxiii.  25). 

6.  The  last  Days  of  the  Monarchy,  i.  The 
Disaster  of  Megiddo,  b.c.  608. — For  a  while  the 
prosperity  of  Josiah  confirmed  the  authority  of 
Jeremiah  and  Deuteronomy,  and  seemed  to  assure 
Judah  that  Jehovah  had  accepted  the  covenant,  for- 
given His  people,  and  received  them  into  His  favour. 
But  the  revival  of  Jewish  power  through  the  weakness 
of  Assyria  soon  came  to  an  end.  Babylon  succeeded  to 
the  authority  of  Nineveh,  while  Pharaoh  Necho,  king 
of  Egypt,  sought  to  regain  the  ancient  Egyptian 
dominion  in  Syria.  Josiah,  doubtless  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  anti-Egyptian  views  of  the  prophets, 
sought  to  arrest  Pharaoh's  march  to  the  Euphrates, 
but  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Megiddo.  The  anti- 
Egyptian  party  gave  the  throne  to  his  son  Jehoahaz ; 
but  Pharaoh  soon  appeared  at  Jerusalem,  deposed 
Jehoahaz,  and  sent  him  captive  to  Egypt,  and  made 
his  brother  Jehoiakim  king  in  his  stead. 

Hitherto  the  issue  of  the  crises  of  Jewish  history 
had  confirmed  the  authority  of  the  prophets;  but 
the  defeat  at  Megiddo  threw  everything  into  con- 
fusion. According  to  2  Kings  xxii.  20,  Huldah  had 
promised  that  Josiah  should  be  gathered  to  his 
grave  in  peace ;  and  yet  the  reforming  king  —  of 
whom  it  is  said  that,  "  Like  unto  him  there  was  no 
king  before  him,  that  turned  to  Jehovah  with  all  his 
heart,  and  soul,  and  might,  according  to  all  the  law 
of  Moses ;  neither  after  him  arose  there  any  like 
hini "  (xxiii.  25) — was  defeated  and  slain  in  the 
prime  of   manhood  (at  the  age  of  39),  when  he  was 


U  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

obediently  carrying  out  the  anti-Egyptian  policy  of 
the  prophets.  Jehovah  replied  to  the  covenant  and 
the  reformation  by  making  Judah  the  tributary  of 
Egypt,  under  the  rule  of  a  nominee  of  Pharaoh. 

The  same  logic,  which  saw  in  the  deliverance  from 
Sennacherib  and  the  ruin  of  Assyria  a  confirmation 
of  the  teaching  of  Isaiah,  interpreted  the  defeat  of 
Megicldo  as  a  divine  repudiation  of  Josiah,  Jeremiah, 
and  Deuteronomy.  The  Egyptian,  or  anti-prophetic, 
party  was  installed  in  power  at  Jerusalem,  and  the 
religious  life  of  Judah  fell  back  into  the  old 
grooves,  out  of  which  Hezekiah  and  Josiah  had  tried 
to  lift  it. 

ii.  The  Temple  as  Palladium. — This  reaction 
claimed  to  be,  what  we  should  call  in  modern  language, 
conservative  and  orthodox.  It  fell  back  on  traditional 
teaching  and  restored  ancient  institutions,  probably, 
for  instance,  the  high  places.  Moreover,  the  reaction 
appropriated  in  some  measure  the  prestige  of  Isaiah 
and  the  earlier  prophets,  and  even  succeeded  in  turning 
the  results  of  Jeremiah's  work  against  himself.  The 
overthrow  of  Sennacherib  and  Isaiah's  teaching  had 
revived  the  old  doctrine  of  the  necessary  relation  be- 
tween Jehovah  and  Israel.  That  great  deliverance 
seemed  to  show  that  Jehovah  had  chosen  Judah  to  be 
the  true  Israel,  and  meant  henceforth  to  dwell  in  the 
Temple  and  protect  Jerusalem  from  all  its  enemies. 
These  ideas  were  confirmed  by  the  unique  importance 
which  Deuteronomy  and  Josiah's  reforms  ascribed  to 
the  Temple.  Popular  superstition  was  only  too  ready 
to  believe  that  the  fate  of  Judah  would  depend,  not 
on  conduct  and  character,  but  on  the  magic  value  of 


ISRAEL    IN  HISTORY  45 

the   sacred  building.     The   old   faith  in  ritual,  qud 

ritual,  revived  in  a  new  form  and  under  new  sanctions. 

iii.  Syncretism. — At  the  same  time  the  reversal  of 
Josiah's  policy  involved  the  revival  of  other  ancient 
corruptions  of  Jewish  religion,  especially  the  confusion 
of  Jehovah  with  "  other  gods,"  and  the  worship  of 
such  gods.  The  disaster  of  Megiddo  might  be  due 
to  Jehovah's  anger,  that  He  was  worshipped  at  fewer 
sanctuaries,  and  with  simpler  rites  than  Moloch  or 
Chemosh.  Or,  if  Jeremiah  were  right,  and  the 
simpler  worship  were  the  will  of  Jehovah,  then 
clearly  He  was  unable  to  protect  His  obedient  servants, 
and  it  would  be  well  to  seek  further  divine  aid. 
Accordingly,  in  the  last  days  of  the  monarchy,  the 
ancient  Jewish  love  of  Syncretism  reasserted  itself 
with  fresh  vigour,  and  the  Jews  did  homage  to  the 
ancient  deities  of  Canaan,  to  the  new  gods  whose 
worship  Manasseh  had  introduced,  and  probably  to 
many  others.  Cf.  Jer.  xi.  28.  "  According  to  the 
number  of  thy  cities  are  thy  gods,  0  Judah  " ;  the 
references  to  the  worship  of  the  "  Queen  of  Heaven  " 
(vii.  18,  xliv.),  and  the  account  of  Jewish  cults  in 
Ezek.  viii.  Moreover,  as  the  fortunes  of  Judah 
became  desperate,  the  Oriental  predilection  for  magic 
and  sorcery  was  indulged  in  more  freely  than  ever. 

iv.  Jeremiah  and  the  Last  Kings  of  Judah,  b.c. 
608-586. — The  fact  that  Jeremiah's  confidence  in 
his  mission  and  message  survived  Megiddo  is  a 
remarkable  proof  of  the  power  and  tenacity  of  his 
inspired  faith.  Naturally,  however,  the  popular 
interpretation  of  history  was  not  accepted  by  Jeremiah 
and    his  friends.     The  disasters  of   Judah  were  not 


46  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

due  to  any  divine  displeasure  with  Josiah,  but  to  the 
still  unexpiated  sins  of  Manasseh.  Forgiveness  was 
withheld  from  Judah,  not  because  Jehovah  dis- 
approved of  the  Deuteronomic  Reformation,  but 
because  the  people  had  merely  acquiesced  in  external 
reforms,  and  had  shown  themselves  incapable  of  any 
heartfelt  repentance  or  sincere  effort  after  amend- 
ment. From  this  time  till  the  end  of  his  career 
Jeremiah  continually  reiterates  the  judgment,  which 
the  former  prophets  passed  upon  the  life  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  and  asserts  with  renewed  emphasis  and 
detail  the  social,  moral  and  religious  corruption  of  all 
classes  in  the  nation. 

We  do  not  know  how  Jeremiah  accounted  for  the 
untimely  fate  of  Josiah.  It  was  not  till  centuries 
later  that  the  Chronicler  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20-24.) 
ventured  to  sacrifice  the  character  of  Josiah  to  the 
necessities  of  Jewish  dogmatism.  In  Jer.  xxii.  15,  16, 
the  prophet  twice  declares  that  "  it  was  well "  with 
Josiah.  We  coidd  easily  understand  that  to  reign 
in  prosperity  and  independence  for  thirty-one  years, 
and  then  to  die  in  battle  was  "  well " ;  far  better 
than  to  be  like  his  successors,  first  the  puppet  and 
then  the  captive  of  foreign  kings.  But  such  views 
would  be  an  anachronism  if  applied  to  the  period  of 
Jeremiah.  Then  it  was  believed  that  the  final  judg- 
ment of  God  upon  a  man's  life  might  be  gathered 
from  the  fortunes  of  his  last  days  (Ezek.  xviii.),  and 
the  fate  of  his  children.  According  to  both  these 
tests  Josiah  stood  condemned.  Probably  his  career 
stimulated  that  discussion  of  the  sufferings  of  the 
righteous,  which  culminates  in  Job  and  Isa.  liii. 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  47 

In  any  case,  Jeremiah  and  his  party  never  recovered 
from  the  blow  dealt  to  them  by  the  defeat  at  Megiddo. 
They  still  retained  great  influence,  and  struggled 
against  the  Egyptian  and  reactionary  party  with 
varying  success ;  but  they  never  regained  that  com- 
plete authority  over  the  government  and  the  people 
which  they  had  enjoyed  under  Josiah. 

The  subjection  of  Judah  to  Egypt  was  speedily 
succeeded  by  its  submission  to  Nebuchadnezzar  ;  but 
Pharaoh's  nominee,  Jehoiakim,  had  sufficient  address 
to  retain  his  throne  under  the  new  suzerain.  From 
this  time,  until  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  Judah  alter- 
nated between  nominal  submission  to  Nebuchadnezzar 
and  open  revolt  against  him ;  but  with  few  and 
brief  exceptions  the  government  was  hi  the  hands  of 
the  Egyptian  party,  who  looked  to  the  Pharaohs  for 
help  against  Babylon.  This  party,  to  which  the 
bulk  of  the  nation  adhered,  was  possessed  by  a  great 
patriotic  and  religious  enthusiasm.  They  were  sup- 
ported by  the  priests  of  the  Temple,  and  by  the 
guilds  of  professional  prophets,  in  their  reliance  upon 
the  ancient  faith  that  Jehovah  would  deliver  His 
chosen  people.  Each  revolt  was  a  Holy  War.  In 
spite  of  the  deportation  of  Jehoiachin  and  the  bulk 
of  the  ruling  classes  to  Babylon,  the  remaining  Jews 
maintained  their  enthusiasm  and  adhered  to  the 
same  national  policy. 

v.  The  Prophet  as  Traitor  and  Heretic. — In- 
dividualism. Jeremiah's  attitude  during  this  period 
is  accurately  denned  in  Jehovah's  words  to  him  in 
i.  18:  "I  have  made  thee  this  clay  a  defenced  city, 
and    an   iron    pillar,    and    brasen  walls  against   the 


48  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

whole  land,  against  the  kings,  princes,  priests,  and 
people  of  Jndah.  They  shall  fight  against  thee  :  but 
they  shall  not  prevail  against  thee,  for  I  am  with 
thee  to  deliver  thee — it  is  the  utterance  of  Jehovah." 
Jeremiah  stood  almost  alone  in  his  opposition  to  the 
patriotic  enthusiasm  of  the  people,  his  attitude  was 
not  merely  indifferent,  but  hostile,  or — as  it  would 
seem  to  the  ruling  party — traitorous.  He  was  con- 
tinually urging  submission  to  Babylon,  the  national 
enemy,  the  oppressor  of  Jehovah's  people.  In  the 
last  siege  he  urged  individuals  to  desert  to  the  enemy, 
and  even  tried  to  prevail  on  the  king  to  surrender 
the  city.  And  as  the  religion  of  the  nation  was  for 
the  moment  merged  in  its  patriotism,  Jeremiah's 
teaching  seemed  abominable  blasphemy,  or,  as  we 
should  say,  rank  heresy.  One  of  his  supporters  was 
put  to  death,  and  he  himself,  on  several  occasions 
narrowly  escaped  a  similar  fate.  Though  Jeremiah 
in  his  teaching  still  emphasises  the  national  character 
of  Jewish  religion,  yet  his  attitude  of  defiant  isolation 
implicitly  asserts  the  main  principles  of  individualism 
in  religion.  In  virtue  of  his  personal  relation  to 
Jehovah  —  his  individual  inspiration  —  Jeremiah 
claimed  that  his  teaching  was  valid  in  the  teeth  of 
ancient  usage  and  tradition,  and  in  spite  of  the  opposi- 
tion of  the  nation  and  its  constituted  authorities,  civil 
and  religious.  In  other  words,  Jeremiah  asserted  the 
authority  of  the  inspired  individual  as  against  for- 
mulated doctrine  in  Church  and  State,  as  against  a 
National  Government  and  a  National  Clergy.  This 
is,  doubtless,  the  attitude  of  all  the  prophets ;  but  it 
is  most  manifest  in  Jeremiah. 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  49 

vi.  The  Inevitable  Ruin  of  Judah. — The  situation 
of  Judah  was  now  closely  parallel  to  that  of  Samaria 
under  its  last  kings,  and  what  Hosea  was  to  Samaria, 
Jeremiah  was  to  Judah.  Jeremiah  was  conscious  of 
this  fact,  and  carefully  studied  the  writings  of  Hosea, 
many  of  whose  ideas  and  phrases  he  adopts  and 
develops.  While,  as  we  have  already  seen,  Jeremiah 
asserts  Jehovah's  willingness  to  forgive,  he  is  none 
the  less  convinced  that  the  ruin  of  Judah  is  inevitable, 
because  the  people  are  incapable  of  true  repentance. 
They  were  a  nation  that  did  not  "hearken  to  the 
voice  of  Jehovah  their  God,  nor  receive  correction  " 
(Jer.  vii.  28).  Sin  had  become  a  second  nature  to 
them.  "  Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin,  or  the 
leopard  his  spots?  then  may  ye  also  do  good,  that 
are  accustomed  to  do  evil"  (xiii.  23).  Elsewhere 
(xv.  4),  the  ruin  of  Judah  is  spoken  of  as  the 
punishment  of  the  sin  of  Manasseh,  as  if  subsequent 
repentance  and  amendment  were  in  vain  because 
Manasseh's  sin  was  not  yet  expiated ;  but  Jeremiah 
does  not  formulate  this  position,  on  the  contrary  he 
offers  pardon  to  Jerusalem  if  a  single  righteous  man 
can  be  found  in  her  (v.  1).  Although  Jeremiah  does 
not  formally  reconcile  such  passages  as  v.  1,  and 
xv.  4,  yet  they  are  easily  seen  to  be  consistent. 
The  sin  of  Manasseh  ruins  Judah,  because  Judah  is 
possessed  by  it  as  by  an  evil  spirit,  persists  in  follow- 
ing in  Manasseh's  footsteps,  and  has  no  inclination  to 
repent. 

vii.  The  Remnant. — Jeremiah  seems  to  have  con- 
templated the  entire  destruction  of  the  existing 
Jewish  community  :    nevertheless,   Israel  was  not  to 

4 


50  JEHOVAB  AND  ISRAEL 

become  extinct.  According  to  iii.  12,  Israel — i.e.,  the 
Ten  Tribes — is  to  return  and  take  the  place  of  Judah. 
After  the  deportation  of  Jehoiachin  and  his  com- 
panions, Jeremiah  saw  the  promise  of  the  New  Israel 
in  the  exiles  at  Babylon  (xxiv.  4-7). 

viii.  The  Judgment  of  the  Nations. — Jeremiah 
saw  in  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  Chaldeans  Jehovah's 
instrument  for  the  chastisement  of  Judah  (xxi.  4-7, 
xxv.  9),*  but  not  of  Judah  only,  but  of  all  nations 
(ix.  25,  26,  xxv.  15-33  f;  cf.  xlvi.-xlix.,)  the  latter 
having  also  been  guilty  of  heinous  sin  (xxv.  31). 
Obviously  the  Chaldeans  could  not  be  included  in  a 
judgment  which  they  themselves  inflicted;  but  it  is 
noteworthy  that  (with  the  doubtful  exception  of 
1.,  li.),  Jeremiah  neither  declares  the  guilt  of  the 
Chaldeans,  nor  predicts  their  ruin.  J 

ix.  Habakkuk,  cir.  B.C.  605.— On  the  other  hand 
the  "  burden  "  of  Habakkuk  is  Jehovah's  vengeance 
on  the  Chaldeans  (i.  12).  This  judgment  rests  on 
moral  grounds,  the  Chaldeans  are  punished  for  their 
cruelty  and  injustice  (ii.  9-17),  and  for  their  idolatry 
(ii.  18-20).  Their  ruin  involves  the  restoration  of 
all  their  victims  as  well  as  of  the  Jews :  "  Because 
thou  hast  spoiled  many  nations,  all  the  remnant  of 
the  peoples  shall  spoil  thee  "  (ii.  8).  Habakkuk,  like 
Nahum,  stands  apart  from  the  main  current  of 
prophetic   teaching :    he  neither  emphasises   the   sin 

*  LXX.  omits  the  clause  "  and  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of 
Babylon,  my  servant." 

f  LXX.  omits  the  clause  "  and  the  king  of  Sheshach — i.e., 
Babylon — shall  drink  after  them." 

J  The  text  of  xxv.  12-14  is  probably  corrupt. 


ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY  51 

nor  announces  the  ruin  of  Judah.  The  Jews  are 
"  more  righteous "  than  the  "  wicked  "  Chaldeans 
(i.  13) :  they  are  "  the  just  who  shall  live  by  faith  " 
(ii.  4).  Moreover  the  words  of  ii.  20,  "Jehovah  is 
in  His  holy  Temple :  let  all  the  earth  keep  silence 
before  Him,"  would  inevitably  be  used  by  Jeremiah's 
opponents  to  support  their  teaching  that  the  in- 
violability of  the  Temple  guaranteed  the  safety  of 
Jerusalem. 

X.    EZEKIEL  AND  THE  PALESTINIAN  JEWS,  cil\  B.C.  592 

-586. — Ezekiel  was  a  priest  who  had  been  carried 
captive  to  Babylon  with  Jehoiachin  in  B.C.  599. 
In  many  respects  his  teaching  is  dependent  upon  that 
of  Jeremiah,  whose  disciple  and  adherent  he  probably 
was  before  he  went  into  exile.  Like  Jeremiah,  he 
declares  that  all  classes  in  Judah  were  sunk  in  moral, 
social  and  religious  corruption  (vii.  23,  viii.,  xiii.,  xvi., 
xx.,  xxii.,  etc.);  he  denounces  the  alliance  with  Egypt 
(xvii.  15);  he  regards  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the 
Chaldeans  as  the  instruments  chosen  by  Jehovah  to 
execute  His  judgments  upon  Judah  (xvii.  20,  xxi. 
8-24)  and  the  nations  (xxv.-xxxii.).  Chaldea,  more- 
over, is  still  exempted  from  any  express  condemnation. 
The  bulk  of  the  Jewish  population  will  be  exterminated 
and  the  "Bemnant"  carried  into  captivity  (vi.  1-14). 
According  to  xvii.  11-21,  the  immediate  occasion 
of  the  ruin  of  Judah  was  Zedekiah's  treachery,  in 
breaking  the  oath  of  allegiance  which  he  had  sworn 
to  Nebuchadnezzar. 

xi.  The  Fall  of  Jerusalem,  cir.  b.c.  586. — The 
long  series  of  prophecies  of  doom,  which  culminated 
in  the  utterances  of  Jeremiah,  was  now  fulfilled  by 


52  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

the  final  capture  of  Jerusalem,  the  destruction  of  the 
Holy  City  and  the  Temple,  the  massacre  of  many  of 
the  population,  and  the  deportation  of  many  more 
to  Babylon.  This  catastrophe  enforced  afresh  the 
lessons  which  had  been  taught  by  the  Fall  of  Samaria. 
The  captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes  had  shown  that 
Jehovah  was  not  necessarily  the  champion  of  Israel, 
that  His  protection  depended  upon  the  conduct  and 
character  of  His  people,  and  that,  if  His  chosen 
people  gave  themselves  up  to  wickedness,  they  would 
be  blotted  out. 

The  effect  of  the  fall  of  Samaria  had  been  almost 
destroyed  by  the  deliverance  from  Sennacherib,  which, 
together  with  Isaiah's  teaching,  was  construed  into 
an  unconditional  guarantee  that  Jehovah  would 
always  protect  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple.  This 
revival  of  ancient  doctrine  was  again  utterly  dis- 
credited by  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  At  the  same 
time,  the  authority  of  Jeremiah,  which  had  been 
shaken  by  the  defeat  and  death  of  Josiah,  was  fully 
established  by  the  exact  fulfilment  of  his  awful 
threats  of  ruin.  The  results  of  this  terrible  authenti- 
cation of  Jeremiah's  teaching  were  instant  and  mani- 
fold.    We  may  mention  two  important  points : 

(«)  Revealed  Religion  survived  Judah,  as  it  had 
survived  Israel,  §  4,  viii.  Popular  Jewish  theology  had 
sought  to  stake  the  honour,  the  very  existence,  of 
Jehovah,  on  the  existence  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
Temple  ;  but  for  the  inspired  protests  of  Jeremiah, 
the  higher  faith  of  Judah  would  have  perished  with 
Solomon's  shrine.  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  had  pro- 
claimed that  Nebuchadnezzar  destroyed  the  Temple, 


ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY  53 

not  in  spite  of,  but  at  the  command  of,  Jehovah.  As 
formerly  at  the  fall  of  Samaria,  so  now  the  destruction 
of  the  chosen  people  testified  to  the  omnipotence, 
instead  of  the  impotence,  of  Jehovah.  Moreover,  it 
was  clearly  shown  that  Jehovah  not  only  continued 
to  exist,  but  that  His  majesty  was  unimpaired  when 
His  chosen  people  were  slain  or  captive,  His  land  a 
desolate  and  conquered  province  of  a  foreign  empire, 
and  His  City  and  Temple  a  heap  of  ruins.  Clearly, 
therefore,  Jehovah  was  altogether  independent  of 
Israel.  Thus  another  great  step  had  been  taken  in 
the  revelation  of  the  omnipotence  of  Jehovah,  and 
the  universality  of  the  true  religion. 

(b)  The  chastisement  of  Judah  for  its  sin  empha- 
sised afresh  the  moral  character  of  Jehovah,  and  the 
moral  conditions  of  acceptance  with  Him. 

xii.  The  Jewish  Kefugees  in  Egypt  (Jer. 
xl.-xliv.). — The  Fall  of  Jerusalem  suggested  the 
possibility  that  the  long-threatened  punishment  had 
been  fully  inflicted,  and  that  the  Jews  still  left  in 
Palestine  might  forthwith  become  the  true  Israel, 
reconciled  to  Jehovah  and  enjoying  His  favour. 
These  hopes  were  promptly  quenched  by  Ezekiel 
(xxxiii.  21-29).  Moreover,  the  murder  of  the 
Chaldean  governor,  the  Jewish  prince  Gedaliah,  was 
followed  by  the  flight  of  many  of  the  remaining  Jews 
into  Egypt.  Jeremiah  had  protested  against  this 
return  to  Egypt,  in  which  he  himself  was  compelled 
to  join.  The  devotion  of  the  Jews — especially  the 
Jewish  women — to  the  "  Queen  of  Heaven  "  led  to 
renewed  threats  of  punishment  in  Jeremiah's  last 
recorded  prophecy. 


54  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

In  view  of  the  intimate  relations  between  Egypt 
and  its  Jewish  partisans,  large  numbers  of  Jews  mast 
already  have  taken  refuge  in  Egypt.  These,  with 
the  new  arrivals,  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  Jewish 
community  in  Egypt,  which  exercised  so  important 
an  influence  on  the  future  of  Judaism. 

xiii.  Obadiah,  cir.  B.C.  586. — The  cruelty  of  Edom 
towards  the  Jews,  about  the  time  of  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem,  drew  down  upon  it  the  condemnation  of  the 
prophets,  which  finds  special  expression  in  a  prophecy 
which  occurs  in  two  slightly  different  forms,  as  the 
Book  of  Obadiah  and  as  Jer.  xlix.  7-22.  The  subse- 
quent conquest  of  Southern  Judaea  by  the  Edomites 
intensified  the  Jewish  hatred  of  Edom  (Joel  iii.  19). 

7.  The  Captivity,  i.  Religion  a  Spiritual  Life, 
and  not  a  Ritual  Observance. — The  prophetic  teach- 
ing that  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  desolation  of 
Palestine,  and  the  exile  of  the  Jews  were  the  work 
of  Jehovah  involved  (§  6,  xi.)  a  belief  in  Jehovah's  in- 
dependence of  land  and  people,  sanctuary  and  ritual. 
The  experience  of  the  Captivity  confirmed  this  faith. 
In  a  foreign  land,  without  Temple  or  sacrifice,  the 
Jews  still  enjoyed  the  sense  of  Jehovah's  presence 
and  protection,  and  the  ministry  of  prophets  such 
as  Ezekiel  and  the  author  of  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.  If 
Jehovah  was  thus  present  in  a  hostile  and  alien 
country,  He  must  be  omnipresent.  Moreover,  the 
fact  that  the  religious  life  of  the  faithful  continued 
without  sanctuary,  sacrifice,  or  ritual,  while  their 
national  life  was  in  abeyance,  was  a  revelation  of  the 
spiritual  character  of  religion,  and  of  its  significance 
for  the  individual  apart  from  the  nation, 


ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY  55 

ii.  Literary  Activity. — The  Jews  in  Babylon 
onfidently  expected  to  return  to  Palestine  and  renew 
their  old  national  life.  Hence  they  were  anxious  to 
retain  all  extant  knowledge  of  that  life,  so  that  the 
Captivity  was  a  period  of  great  literary  activity.  In 
addition  to  original  productions,  of  which  we  shall 
speak  later  on,  older  documents  were  combined  and 
re-edited.  The  interruption  of  local  tradition  by  the 
exile  gave  new  importance  to  written  history  ;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  teaching  of  the  prophets  had 
emphasised  the  religious  significance  of  history.  Dur- 
ing the  Captivity  the  ancient  historical  documents 
were  combined  and  edited  under  the  influence  of 
Deuteronomy  and  the  prophets.  The  ancient  narra- 
tives of  the  Patriarchs,  the  Exodus,  and  the 
Conquest,*  were  combined  with  an  enlarged  edition  of 
Josiah's  Deuteronomy  and  Judges  ;  Samuel  and  Kings 
were  re-edited  as  a  single,  continuous,  historical  work. 
Probably  the  Book  of  Jeremiah  was  edited  during 
this  period  in  a  form  substantially  the  same  as  that 
in  which  it  is  now  extant. 

iii.  The  Formation  of  Bitual  Codes.  —  Deu- 
teronomy lays  comparatively  little  stress  on  the 
details  of  ritual.  These  would  natually  be  a  matter 
of  hereditary  tradition  in  the  priestly  families,  though, 
of  course,  the  tradition  might  be  committed  to  writing. 
But  the  prolonged  cessation  of  the  Temple  services 
during  the  Captivity  might  have  led  to  the  loss  or 
corruption  of  a  purely  oral  tradition.  Hence  it  was 
necessary  that  ancient  customs  should  be  recorded  in 
writing.  Moreover,  as  these  ancient  customs  had 
*  J.  and  E. 


56  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

been  tainted  by  many  corruptions,  the  formation  of 
written  codes  was  an  obvious  opportunity  for  purging 
the  ritual  of  impure  elements,  and  of  adapting  it 
to  the  prophetic  ideal  of  worship.  This  is  attempted 
in  two  closely  allied  documents — the  ritual  code  in 
Ezek.  xl.-xlviii.,  and  the  Law  of  Holiness  (Lev. 
xvii.-xxvi.). 

iv.  Ezekiel  xl.-xlviii.  —These  chapters  contain  an 
ecclesiastical  constitution  and  ritual  code  for  the 
redeemed  and  purified  Israel.  The  limitation  of 
worship  to  a  single  sanctuary  is  confirmed  (xliii.), 
and  the  supreme  importance  of  the  Temple  is  shown 
by  minute  architectural  specifications  and  numerous 
other  details  occupying  chapters  xl.-xlii.  As  re- 
gards the  priesthood,  the  revolution  which  began 
with  the  suppression  of  the  high  places  is  carried  a 
stage  further.  Deuteronomy  had  given  to  all  the 
priests  of  the  high  places  the  right  to  be  included  in 
the  priesthood  of  the  Temple  ;  Josiah,  however,  had 
only  been  able  to  secure  that  they  might  be  main- 
tained out  of  the  Temple  revenues,  they  were  not 
allowed  to  perform  the  priestly  ministrations.  Ezek. 
xliv.  9-16  entirely  excludes  the  Levitical  priests  of 
the  high  places  from  the  priesthood  proper  and  re- 
duces them — under  the  title  of  "  the  Levites  " — to  be 
menial  servants  of  the  priests.  This  degradation  is 
the  penalty  inflicted  upon  them  for  their  share  in  the 
corruptions  of  the  high  places.  The  priesthood  proper 
is  reserved  for  the  hereditary  priests  of  the  Temple, 
the  Levitical  priests  of  the  house  of  Zadok.  Ezekiel 
carefully  and  exhaustively  systematises  the  religious 
constitution  of  Israel.     Order  and   decorum   are   to 


ISRAEL   IX  HISTORY  57 

characterise  the  new  dispensation ;  the  inter-tribal 
and  other  divisions  of  his  new  map  of  Palestine  are 
all  straight  lines;  and  the  ground  plan  and  elevations 
of  the  Temple  are,  as  far  as  possible,  square  or  sym- 
metrical. The  persons  and  institutions  of  the  new 
Israel  are  sacred  (qadosh,  §  17)  in  a  carefully  ordered 
gradation. 

v.  The  Law  of  Holiness  (Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.). — 
This  code,  as  the  name  now  given  to  it  implies, 
emphasises  Ezekiel's  principle  of  the  sanctity  (EY, 
holiness)  of  Israel.  In  other  respects  also  the  two 
codes  have  much  in  common.  There  is  obviously  a 
literary  connection  between  them,  some  dependence 
of  one  upon  the  other,  or  of  both  upon  previous  docu- 
ments ;  but  the  exact  nature  of  the  connection  has  not 
yet  been  determined.  The  law  of  holiness  as  we  now 
have  it  contains  editorial  additions  later  than  the  exile. 

The  keynote  of  the  law  of  holiness  is  struck  by 
the  command  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  :  "  Ye  shall  be 
qadosh  (E.Y.  "holy");  for  I,  Jehovah  your  God,  am 
qadosh  "  (xix.  2.  Cf .,  xx.  26).  While  this  code  strongly 
insists  on  moral  and  social  righteousness  (xviii.-xx., 
xxiv.)  and  further  develops  the  humane  tendencies  of 
Deuteronomy  and  the  prophets  (xxv.) ;  the  sanctity 
of  the  people  is  specially  connected  with  their  ab- 
stinence from  unclean  food  (xx.  25,  26),  and  the 
sanctity  of  the  priests  with  similar  external  obser- 
vances. It  is  taken  for  granted  that  the  priests  are 
not  the  Levites  generally,  but  the  "  sons  of  Aaron  " — 
i.e.,  the  house  of  Zadok.  But  the  gradation  of  the 
Temple  hierarchy  is  further  developed  and  completed 
by  the  formal  recognition  cf  a  single  supreme  head  of 


58  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

the  priesthood — the  High  Priest  (xxi.  10-15).  The 
limitation  of  sacrifice  to  a  single  sanctuary  is  again 
affirmed  (xvii.  1-7).  While  in  Ezek.  xl.-xlviii.  the 
stress  is  laid  on  the  sacred  land  and  the  Temple,  in 
the  law  of  holiness  the  stress  is  laid  on  the  sacred 
ritual,  especially  on  ritual  "cleanliness."  While 
Ezekiel's  scheme  is  a  systematic  reconstruction  of 
ancient  custom  and  tradition,  the  law  of  holiness  is 
compiled  and  edited  from  earlier  codes. 

While  Ezekiel  and  the  law  of  holiness  show  no 
falling  off  from  the  ancient  prophetic  zeal  for  moral 
righteousness,  their  interest  in  ritual  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  attitude  of  Jeremiah,  of  the  earlier 
prophets,  and  even  of  Deuteronomy.  With  the 
suppression  of  the  high  places  and  the  purifica- 
tion of  the  Temple  worship,  the  ritual  ceased  to  be 
objectionable  in  itself.  The  combination  of  moral 
and  ritual  ordinances  in  the  same  documents  was 
intended  to  secure  that  Israel  should  not  again  hope 
to  find  in  its  ritual  impunity  for  an  immoral  life. 
At  the  same  time  the  greater  stress  laid  on  ritual 
tempted  the  people  to  indulge  the  universal  tendency 
to  ignore  the  moral  and  spiritual  life,  in  reliance 
upon  external  forms.  It  is  significant  that  amongst 
the  sins  which  led  to  the  ruin  of  Judah,  the  one  which 
the  law  of  holiness  selects  for  special  mention  is  the 
non-observance  of  the  sabbatical  year  (xxvi.  34-43). 

vi.  Lamentations. — This  book  is  a  retrospect  which 
corresponds  very  closely  to  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah, 
who  has  often  been  supposed  to  be  its  author.  It 
confesses  that  the  misery  of  the  Jews  is  inflicted  by 
Jehovah   as    the    just    punishment   of    sin   (i.    18), 


ISRAEL   IX  HISTORY  59 

especially  the  sin  of  the  priests  and  prophets  (ii.  14, 
iv.  13). 

vii.  Isaiah  xl.-lxvi. — We  have  already  seen  how 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Captivity  emphasised 
the  universality  of  religion  and  the  omnipotence  and 
omnipresence  of  Jehovah.  The  situation  of  believing 
Jews  in  Chaldea  compelled  them  to  reflect  on  these 
questions.  They  might  believe  that  the  ruin  of  Judah 
was  a  manifestation  of  the  power  and  righteousness 
of  Jehovah,  but  the  heathen  were  convinced  that  the 
chosen  people  had  suffered  through  the  impotence 
of  Jehovah,  and  the  might  of  heathen  deities ;  and 
this  conviction  was  shared  by  many  of  the  Jews 
themselves  (Jer.  xliv.  18,  19).  Moreover,  the  captives 
in  Babylon  could  not  fail  to  be  impressed  by  the 
magnificent  temples  and  splendid  ritual  of  the  Chal- 
dean religion.  They  would  be  tempted  to  regard 
the  extent  and  prosperity  of  the  empire  as  another 
proof  of  the  power  of  its  gods. 

Ezekiel  was  specially  anxious  to  vindicate  the  name 
of  Jehovah  from  the  reproach  which  the  heathen  cast 
upon  it,  on  account  of  the  sufferings  of  Judah.  The 
presence  of  the  captives  amongst  the  heathen  brought 
dishonour  on  Jehovah  (xxxvi.  16-24),  so  that,  by  a 
series  of  judgments  (xxv.-xxxii.)  they  must  be  taught 
to  know  "  that  I  am  Jehovah  "  (xxv.  7  et  passim). 

In  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.  the  controversy  between  Jehovah 
and  the  gods  of  Babylon  is  decided  by  a  formal, 
explicit,  and,  in  part,  reasoned  statement  of  the 
exclusive  deity  of  Jehovah  (xliv.  6,  xlv.  5);  His 
omnipotence  (xl.),  and  omniscience  (xlviii.  1-8) ;  He 
has  created  the  world  (xl.  28,  xlv.  12)  and  governs 


60  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

it  by  His  Providence  (xliv.  7).  On  the  other  hand 
the  gods  of  Babylon  are  as  helpless  and  useless  as  the 
idols  by  which  they  are  represented  (xli.  23,  24, 
xliv.  9-20,  xlvi.  1,  2).  But  Jehovah  offers  Himself 
as  a  Saviour  to  all  mankind  (xlv.  23-24),  and 
commissions  His  servant  Israel  to  be  "a  light  to  the 
Gentiles,"  and  His  "  salvation  unto  the  end  of  the 
earth "  (xlix.  6).  The  contrast  between  this  high 
mission  and  the  present  degraded  and  wretched  lot 
of  even  righteous  exiles,  showed  that  suffering  was 
not  always  the  punishment  of  sin ;  and  Isa.  liii. 
explains  the  sufferings  of  the  Righteous  One  as  a 
vicarious  atonement  for  the  guilty. 

viii.  The  Promise  of  Restoration. — We  have 
seen  that  almost  all  the  prophets  couple  with  their 
prophecies  of  ruin,  a  promise  of  restoration.  In  the 
prophets  of  the  close  of  the  monarchy,  the  prophecies 
of  a  captivity  are  combined  with  a  promise  of  return 
from  captivity.  According  to  Jer.  xxv.  11,  the 
captivity  was  to  terminate  after  seventy  years,  and 
in  xxx.-xxxiii.*  the  restoration  of  Israel  and  Judah 
is  set  forth  at  great  length.  Ezekiel  regards  the 
return  of  Israel  and  Judah  as  necessary  to  the 
vindication  of  the  honour  of  Jehovah  (xxix.  21, 
xxxvi.  9 — 38,  xxxvii.) ;  and  although  Isa.  xl.-lxvi. 
declares  that  Jehovah  is  the  God  of  all  mankind, 
these  chapters,  nevertheless,  assert  that  Jehovah 
has  chosen  Israel  to  be  His  servant  (xliv.  1),  through 
whom    He   is   revealed   to   the   world.     Accordingly 

*  Even  if  the  Jeremianic  authorship  of  these  chapters  in 
their  present  form  be  disputed,  the  main  idea  of  the  restora- 
tion of  Israel  and  Judah  is  certainly  Jeremiah's. 


ISRAEL  IN  HISTORY  61 

the  Jews  are  to  be  restored  to  Judah.  (xl.  etc.). 
According  to  Ezek.  xxxvi.  22,  Israel  is  restored  not 
for  its  own  sake,  but  simply  to  vindicate  Jehovah's 
honour.  Like  the  Exodus,  the  conquest  and  the 
deliverance  from  Sennacherib,  the  restoration  is  a 
free  act  of  divine  sovereignty;  a  fresh  token  of 
the  divine  election  of  Israel,  which  is  not  brought 
about  through  any  merit  on  the  part  of  the  chosen 
people.  Similarly  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.  emphasises  the  elec- 
tion of  Israel ;  but  this  renewal  of  divine  favour 
is  rendered  possible,  because  by  the  sufferings  of  the 
Captivity,  the  Jews  had  expiated  the  former  sins  of 
the  nation  :  "  Speak  ye  comfortably  to  Jerusalem,  and 
cry  unto  her  that  her  warfare  is  accomplished,  that 
her  iniquity  is  pardoned ;  that  she  hath  received  of 
Jehovah's  hand  double  for  all  her  sins"  (xl.  2).  The 
same  idea  underlies  Jer.  xxx. — xxxiii.  (Cf.  li.  20.*) 

Meanwhile,  the  comparatively  favourable  attitude 
of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  towards  Babylon  is  changed 
for  one  of  stern  condemnation.  Like  Assyria,  Babylon 
has  been  the  instrument  which  Jehovah  had  chosen 
to  chastise  His  people ;  but  also,  like  Assyria,  Babylon 
had  not  recognised  its  subordinate  position.  The 
Chaldeans  had  become  lifted  up  with  pride,  had 
blasphemed  Jehovah,  and  had  gone  beyond  their 
commission  ;  and  had  treated  the  Jews  with  undue 
harshness  and  cruelty  (xlvii.  6).  Hence  Jer.  1.*  li.* 
and  Isaiah  xlvii.,  xiii.,*  xiv.,*  follow  Habakkuk 
in  announcing  the  speedy  ruin  of  Chaldea  as  the 
punishment  of  its  sins. 

*  The  authenticity  of  these  chapters  is  denied  by  many 
authorities. 


62  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

As  previous  prophets  had  indicated  Assyria  and 
Babylon  as  the  instruments  of  Jehovah's  judgments, 
and  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel  had  given  special  pro- 
minence to  Nebuchadnezzar  as  the  sword  and  servant 
of  Jehovah,  so  now  Isaiah  (xliv.  28,  xlvi.)  declares  that 
Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  is  Jehovah's  shepherd  and 
Messiah  (E.V.  "  Anointed  "),  who  shall  execute  judg- 
ment upon  Babylon  and  deliver  the  Jews. 

ix.  The  Fall  of  Babylon  and  the  Return  of  the 
Jews,  b.c.  538-6. — Thus  the  conquests  of  Cyrus,  and 
especially  his  occupation  of  Babylon,  and  the  sub- 
sequent return  of  a  portion  of  the  Jews  to  Palestine 
furnished  new  proofs  of  the  lordship  of  Jehovah  over 
the  nations,  and  of  the  authority  of  the  prophets. 
One  feature  of  the  new  deliverance  of  Israel  exercised 
considerable  influence  upon  the  future  of  Judaism. 
While  at  the  Conquest  and  under  the  judges  and  the 
earlier  kings  Jehovah  delivered  Israel  through  its  own 
victorious  armies,  the  termination  of  the  Captivity, 
like  the  Exodus  and  the  deliverance  from  Sennacherib, 
was  brought  about  without  any  aid  from  the  Jews 
themselves.  The  former  deliverances  had  shown  that 
Jehovah  controlled  Nature  in  the  interests  of  Israel ; 
the  Return  proved  that  the  history  of  the  nations 
was  similarly  governed.  The  Jews  found  their  con- 
dition as  a  subject -race  less  intolerable,  when  they 
believed  that  the  fortunes  of  their  rulers,  and  indeed 
the  international  relations  of  all  the  known  world, 
were  divinely  ruled  in  their  interests. 

8.  Judaism,  i.  The  Restored  Community  and  the 
Jewish  Dispersion. — By  the  return  of  a  number  of 
Jews  from  Babylon   to   Judsea,   and   their  re -union 


ISRAEL   IX  HISTORY  63 

with  some,  at  any  rate,  of  the  remnant  who  had 
continued  in  their  native  land  throughout  the 
Captivity,  the  chosen  people  were  once  more  repre- 
sented by  a  Jewish  community  in  the  sacred  land. 
But  this  community  was  no  longer  independent ;  it 
inhabited  a  subdivision  of  a  province — one  might 
almost  say  a  city — of  the  Persian  empire.  It  was 
for  some  time,  and  always  to  a  large  extent,  a 
city-state.  Its  raison-d'etre  was  the  maintenance  of 
the  Temple  and  its  services ;  so  that,  as  it  is  often 
said,  Israel  was  no  longer  a  nation ;  it  had  become  a 
church. 

At  the  same  time  the  Jews  who  remained  behind 
in  Babylon  formed  a  much  more  powerful  and 
important  body  than  the  little  colony  round  Jerusalem; 
and,  although  in  one  sense  the  Jewish  community  in 
Egypt  dates  from  the  foundation  of  Alexandria,  yet, 
as  we  have  seen,  there  was  already  a  body  of  Jewish 
refugees  in  Egypt  who  prepared  the  way  for  the 
Alexandrian  settlement.  Henceforward,  therefore, 
Judaism  had  three  centres,  Egypt,  Judaea,  and 
Babylon ;  and  the  Jewish  dispersion  becomes  an 
important  factor  in  the  development  of  Judaism. 

ii.  The  Rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  b.c.  536- 
516;  Haggai,  b.c.  520;  Zeohariah  i.-viii.,  B.C.  520- 
518. — The  first  task  of  the  returned  exiles  was  the 
restoration  of  the  sacrificial  ritual  and  the  rebuilding 
of  the  Temple  (Ezra  iii.-vi.).  The  zeal  of  the  new 
community  for  purity  of  worship  is  shown  by  then- 
refusal  to  unite  with  the  mixed  population  of  Samaria 
(Ezra  iv.  1-4).  After  many  delays,  and  in  the  teeth 
of   much  opposition,  the  Temple  was  completed  and 


64  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

dedicated.  Thus  the  special  interest  of  Jehovah  in 
the  chosen  people  and  the  sacred  land  was  again 
set  forth  in  the  visible  symbols  of  a  sacred  building 
and  ritual.  The  one  Temple  accepted  by  all  acknow- 
ledged Jews  as  the  only  sanctuary  of  Jehovah  became 
a  visible  token  of  the  divine  unity ;  while  in  the 
absence  of  the  ark  (Jer.  iii.  16),  or  any  other  visible 
symbol  of  the  divine  presence,  the  very  emptiness  of 
the  Most  Sacred  Place  emphasised  the  spirituality 
of  the  divine  nature. 

The  Jews  were  encouraged  to  rebuild  the  Temple 
by  the  exhortations  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah,  who 
promised  that  Jehovah  would  bless  the  work  and 
reward  the  zeal  of  the  Jews  by  great  prosperity. 

iii.  The  Reforms  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  cir.  B.C. 
458-433  ;  The  Levitical  Law  (Priestly  Code,  P.), 
Malachi. — The  Temple  and  its  ritual  did  not, 
however,  prove  a  sufficient  safeguard  of  pure  religion. 
The  small  Jewish  community  was  surrounded  by 
kindred  tribes,  including  the  semi-Israelite  population 
of  Samaria.  These  had  been  excluded  from  any 
share  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  ;  but  the  Jews 
necessarily  had  some  dealings  with  their  neighbours, 
and,  as  after  a  while  this  intercourse  increased, 
many — even  among  the  rulers  and  priests — married 
foreign  wives  (Ezra  ix.  1-4),  and  at  one  time  an 
Ammonite,  Tobiah  (Neh.  xiii.  4-9),  *  was  allowed  to 
occupy  a  store-chamber  of  the  Temple.  Proper 
provision  was  not  made  for  the  services  (Neh.  xiii.  10), 

*  The  events  of  Neh.  xiii.  happened  after  the  main 
reformation,  but  they  may  serve  as  mild  examples  of  the 
previous  state  of  affairs. 


ISRAEL   IX  II IS  TORY  65 

The  sanie  causes  were  at  work  which  had  corrupted 
the  life  and  worship  of  ancient  Israel,  and  it  seemed 
probable  that  the  good  effect  of  the  teaching  of  the 
prophets  and  the  discipline  of  the  Captivity  would  be 
lost.  The  loyalty  of  the  Jews  to  the  new  order  was 
tried  by  great  distress,  during  which  the  more  wealthy 
made  great  profits  out  of  the  necessities  of  the  poor 
(N"eh.  v.).  The  Sabbath  was  almost  altogether  neg- 
lected (Neh.  xiii.). 

The  Jewish  community  was  delivered  from  these 
dangers,  and  finally  won  for  pure  religion  by  the 
persistent  efforts  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  They 
largely  succeeded  in  effecting  that  complete  separation 
between  the  Jews  and  their  neighbours,  which  Joshua 
and  Zerubbabel  had  attempted  to  bring  about. 
Nehemiah  provided  for  the  continued  existence  of 
the  Jews  as  a  separate  community,  by  fortifying 
Jerusalem.  Jews  who  had  married  foreigners  were 
compelled  to  put  away  their  wives,  and  such  marriages 
were  strictly  forbidden  (Ezra  ix.,  x.  j  Neh.  xiii.  23-28). 
Measures  were  taken  to  relieve  the  distress  amongst 
the  people  (Neh.  v.),  and  to  secure  the  maintenance 
of  the  Temple  services  (Neh.  x.,  xiii.  10-14,  29-31). 

The  great  instrument  which  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
used  in  effecting  their  reforms  was  the  Levitical  law. 
This  document,  which  is  extant  in  Leviticus  and  the 
allied  portions  of  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch,  and 
of  Joshua,  contains  an  elaborate  system  of  public  and 
private  ritual  on  the  lines  of  Ezek.  xl.-xlviii.,  and 
the  law  of  holiness.  The  latter  was  soon  included 
in  the  Levitical  law.  The  principles  of  this  new 
code  were  very  similar  to  those  of  its  predecessors ;  it 


66  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

presents  the  same  combination  of  moral  and  ritual 
ordinances,  but  even  when  the  law  of  holiness  is 
reckoned  as  part  of  the  Levitical  law,  the  stress  laid 
upon  ritual  far  outweighs  all  other  interests.  This 
new  code  is  combined  with  a  brief  introductory 
history  of  the  ancestors  of  Israel,  and  of  the  Exodus. 
Here  the  teaching  of  the  prophets  is  illustrated  in 
narrative  form  ;  an  account  is  given  of  the  creation 
of  the  universe  by  God;  His  eternal  and  almighty 
Providence  is  shown,  shaping  all  history  towards  the 
establishment  of  the  Israelite  Kingdom  of  God  in 
Palestine ;  His  election  of  Israel  is  set  forth  as  the 
climax  of  a  series  of  elections ;  His  method  of  pro- 
gressive revelation  is  seen  in  the  successive  revela- 
tions by  which  He  was  known  to  the  first  patriarchs 
as  Elohim,  to  Abraham  as  El-shaddai,  to  Moses  as 
Jehovah. 

Ezekiel's  systematisation  of  the  ritual  is  here  ex- 
tended to  an  almost  mathematical  gradation  of  sacred 
things.  Only  at  a  single  supremely  sacred  point  of 
ritual  does  Israel  fully  realise  its  communion  with 
Jehovah.  Thus  the  exaltation  of  the  divine  majesty 
is  strikingly  emphasised,  but,  at  the  same  time,  the 
system  shows  a  marked  advance  towards  the  tran- 
scendental monotheism  of  later  Judaism.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  this  supreme  act  of  communion,  the 
entry  of  the  High  Priest  into  the  Most  Sacred  Place 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  is  connected  with  the 
expiation  of  sin.  Here  again  we  have  the  permanent 
expression  in  ritual  of  the  prophetic  teaching  as  to 
the  corruption  of  Judah  and  the  constant  need  of 
divine  forgiveness. 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  67 

Thus  the  intimate,  direct  and  joyous  fellowship  of 
ancient  Israel  with  its  God  was  replaced  by  a  worship 
mediated  through  a  ritual  and  a  priesthood,  and 
pervaded  with  a  humiliating  and  depressing  sense  of 
sin  and  of  the  need  of  atonement. 

As,  under  Josiah,  Deuteronomy  had  been  accepted 
by  a  solemn  covenant  as  the  national  code  of  morality 
and  worship,  and  thus  received  the  rank  of  canonical 
scripture ;  so  now  the  Levitical  law,  either  by  itself 
or  in  combination  with  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch, 
was  accepted  by  a  second  and  equally  solemn  covenant 
as  the  divine  standard  of  life  and  worship,  and 
became  the  Jewish  Scriptures  (Neh.  viii.). 

The  Book  of  Malachi  is  linked  with  the  reforms  of 
Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  Amongst  the  sins  it  denounces 
are  niggardliness  in  offering  sacrifices  (i.  7-14), 
withholding  the  payment  of  priestly  dues  (iii.  8-10), 
"  dealing  treacherously  with  the  wife  of  his  youth  " 
(ii.  14-16) — i.e.,  possibly  putting  her  away  in  order  to 
take  a  foreign  wife. 

Many  Psalms  also  express  intense  enthusiasm  for 
the  law,  the  priesthood,  and  the  ritual  (xix.,  cxviii., 
cxix.,  etc.). 

iv.  The  Samaritans. — One  result  of  the  successful 
exclusion  of  the  semi-Israelites  of  Samaria  from  the 
Jewish  community  was  the  formation  of  a  second 
community  of  worshippers  of  Jehovah — the  Samari- 
tans. These  last  accepted  the  Pentateuch  as  canonical 
in  a  special  text  of  their  own,  and  erected  on  Mt. 
Gerizim  a  second  Temple  to  Jehovah.  Joseph  us 
(Antt.  xi.,  vii.  2,  and  viii.  2,  4)  places  the  building  of 
this  temple  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  but 


68  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

the  Samaritan  community  probably  dates  from 
Nehemiah's  expulsion  from  Jerusalem  of  that  grand- 
son of  Eliashib  the  High  Priest,  who  was  son-in-law 
of  Sanballat  the  Horonite  (Neh.  xiii.  28). 

v.  Anti-legal  Tendencies  within  Judaism. 
Ruth  (?) ;  Jonah  (?) ;  Proverbs  ;  Job  ;  Ecclesiastes  ; 
Psalms.— The  exceptional  prominence  given  to  ritual 
by  the  Levitical  law  and  later  Judaism  is  by  no  means 
an  accurate  representation  of  the  spiritual  tendencies 
of  the  period  between  the  Return  and  the  Maccabees. 
Ezra  carried  through  his  reforms  in  the  teeth  of  the 
opposition  of  the  ruling  classes,  civil  and  ecclesiastical, 
and  largely  relied  on  the  authority  of  the  Persian  suze- 
rain. The  literature  of  the  period  shows  that  many 
earnest  Jews  were  comparatively  indifferent  to  ritual, 
and  preoccupied  with  the  more  directly  spiritual  side 
of  religion.  If  the  Book  of  Ruth  is  correctly  referred 
to  this  period,  its  sympathetic  treatment  of  marriages 
between  Israelites  and  Moabites  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  attitude  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah. 
The  Book  of  Jonah  censures  the  prophet  for  his  lack 
of  sympathy  with  a  Gentile  city,  and  depicts  the 
repentance  of  Nineveh  as  accepted  by  Jehovah. 
Psalms  like  li.  16,  17  anxiously  deprecate  any  undue 
faith  in  ritual.  The  wisdom  literature — Job, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  the  Psalter — generally 
display  very  little  interest  in  legal  ordinances.  We 
have  moreover  to  remember  that  throughout  this 
period  the  great  prophets  were  carefully  studied  and 
edited,  so  that  their  influence  was  continually  felt  in 
support  of  moral  and  spiritual  religion. 

vi.  Divine  Justice   and  the   Sufferings  of  the 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  69 

Righteous  (cf.  §  31) ;  Job;  Ecolesiastes. — We  have 
already  seen  how  large  a  part  the  doctrine  of  the  close 
rdation  of  sin  and  suffering  played  in  the  contro- 
versies between  the  prophets  and  the  Jews  ;  and  how 
such  events  as  the  death  of  Josiah,  rendered  the  cur- 
rent teaching  a  continual  stumbling  block  to  Jewish 
faith.  The  circumstances  of  the  restored  community 
raised  this  question  with  renewed  intensity,  both  for 
the  community  and  the  individual.  The  Jews  were 
consciously  righteous  as.  they  had  never  been  before, 
they  were  carefully  observing  the  divine  law ;  and  if 
their  obedience  to  God  was  more  exact  in  external 
observances  than  in  moral  and  spiritual  life,  they 
had  no  Isaiah  or  Jeremiah  to  force  that  fact  on  their 
attention.  Indeed,  whatever  their  faults  may  have 
been,  within  their  own  community  the  Jews  probably 
attained  a  high  level  of  brotherhood  and  social 
righteousness.  Yet  they  were  the  subjects  of  a 
foreign  power,  and  often  suffered  outrage  from  hostile 
neighbours  or  oppression  from  their  masters  ;  they 
still  experienced  unfavourable  seasons,  and  had  to 
contend  with  all  the  difficulties  which  beset  a*  small 
state  in  a  poor  country.  The  question  of  Habakkuk 
(i.  13),  ''Wherefore  lookest  thou  upon  them  that 
deal  treacherously,  and  holdest  thy  peace  when  the 
wicked  swalloweth  up  the  man  that  is  more  righteous 
than  he?"  was  constantly  upon  men's  lips ;  it  is  the 
theme  of  many  Psalms — e.g.,  hi.,  vii.,  x.,  xvii.,  xxii., 
xxxv.,  xxxvii.,  etc.,  etc.  At  the  same  time  men's 
attitudes  towards  this  question  varied  according  to 
the  circumstances  of  their  time  and  their  personal 
fortunes.     The  question  became  acute  when  evil  days 


70  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

fell  upon  Judah,  or  when  a  righteous  man  was  over- 
whelmed by  oppression  ;  in  prosperous  times  wealthy 
Jews  were  willing  to  follow  the  ancient  doctrine, 
and  interpret  their  prosperity  as  a  sign  of  divine 
favour  without  considering  how  this  doctrine  bore  on 
the  sufferers  of  less  fortunate  times;  indeed,  they 
were  often  content  to  believe  that  the  latter  suffered 
on  account  of  their  many  sins.  These  alternations  of 
feeling  are  reflected  in  the  documents  of  the  period. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  teaching  of  Isa.  liii. 
(vii.  §  7),  made  much  immediate  impression,  though 
we  know  that  the  doctrine  of  vicarious  atonement 
Q  exercised  great  influence  on  Pharisaic  Judaism,  and 
became  a  fundamental  doctrine  of  Christianity. 
Before  such  teaching  could  be  fully  accepted,  men 
had  to  reconsider  and,  indeed,  reconstruct  the  current 
doctrine  of  the  relation  of  sin  and  suffering  ;  and  it 
was  difficult  to  overthrow  a  view  which  necessarily 
commended  itself  to  all  prosperous  and  successful 
persons.  While  the  main  section  of  the  Book  of  Job 
is  a  passionate  polemic  against  this  doctrine,  the  Elihu 
speeches  are  a  later  addition  intended  to  refute  the 
error  of  this  polemic,  and  to  justify  the  ancient  creed. 
Similarly  the  view  of  history  given  in  the  Book  of 
Chronicles  is  intended  to  illustrate  and  establish  the 
same  doctrine.  On  the  other  hand,  Ecclesiastes  cuts 
away  the  foundations  of  the  old  faith  by  maintaining 
that  the  material  prosperity,  which  was  supposed  to 
be  a  token  of  divine  favour  and  acceptance,  was  itself 
empty  and  worthless,  "  vanity  of  vanities,"  "  vanity 
and  vexation  of  spirit  "  (R.V.  "  striving  after  wind,' 
Marg.  "  feeding  on  wind  ").     This  negation  prepared 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  71 

the  way  for  the  recognition  of  spiritual  blessedness  as 
the  highest  good,  a  position  which  is  suggested,  rather 
than  explicitly  asserted,  by  isolated  passages  in  the 
Psalms  and  elsewhere  (xvii.  15). 

vii.  Individualism  (cf.  ch.  vi.). — Even  a  national 
religion  necessarily  has  an  individualistic  aspect ;  the 
religious  consciousness  of  the  citizen  is  never  wholly 
merged  in  that  of  the  community,  he  is  always  con- 
scious that  the  national  religion  has  some  personal 
interest  and  value  for  himself.  And  although  the 
prophets  dealt  almost  exclusively  with  the  relations 
of  Jehovah  and  Israel,  yet  the  conditions  under  which 
they  taught  compelled  them  to  emphasise  indirectly 
this  individualistic  side  of  religion.  Under  normal 
conditions  an  Israelite's  religion  was  determined  by 
his  nationality;  it  was  no  question  of  personal 
choice. 

The  prophets,  however,  were  mostly  in  an  attitude 
of  antagonism  to  the  nation  generally,  and  to  the 
popular  customs  and  traditions  of  its  faith.  They 
sought  to  convert  the  people  to  their  teaching,  and 
claimed  that  their  followers  constituted  the  true  Israel 
of  God.  Thus,  for  the  adherents  of  the  prophets, 
religious  faith  and  practice  had  ceased  to  be  deter- 
mined by  national  status,  and  had  become  a  matter  of 
personal  choice,  which  almost  always  separated  the 
believer  from  the  bulk  of  his  fellow-countrymen,  and 
sometimes  placed  him  in  opposition  to  what  was 
generally  regarded  as  the  national  religion.  See 
specially  the  case  of  Jeremiah. 

After  the  return,  pure  Jehovah -worship  became 
finally  established  as  the  Jewish  faith,  though  a  large 


72  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

minority  seems  always  to  have  been  indifferent  or 
hostile  to  the  law ;  loyalty  to  which  was  still  rather 
an  individual  choice  than  absolute  matter  of  course. 
Moreover,  the  personal  ritual  of  the  Levitical  law, 
the  regulations  as  to  cleanness  and  the  elaborate 
ceremonial  connected  with  everyday  life,  were  too 
numerous  and  complicated  to  be  observed  merely  as 
habits,  the  law  could  only  be  kept  by  deliberate  and 
zealous  personal  effort.  Then,  too,  the  circumstances 
of  the  dispersion  gave  prominence  to-  the  individual 
religious  life.  Jewish  families  and  clans  were  often 
isolated  among  the  Gentiles.  Their  faith  was  sustained 
by  pride  of  race,  by  their  confidence  in  the  exclusive 
religious  privileges  of  Israel.  But  thus,  even  their 
national  faith  became  a  personal  matter.  The  ancient 
Israelite  held  his  national  faith  as  a  member  of  a 
visible  community  gathered  in  their  own  land ;  but 
the  national  faith  separated  the  Jew  of  the  dispersion 
from  his  Gentile  neighbours,  and  became  almost  an 
individual  privilege,  a  personal  distinction.  And 
again,  the  problem  of  the  sufferings  of  the  righteous 
became  more  and  more  a  question  of  personal  re- 
ligion, not  only  because  it  was  naturally  illustrated 
by  personal  experience  and  most  keenly  felt  in  in- 
dividual cases,  but  also  because,  in  the  scattered 
condition  of  the  Jews,  they  no  longer  shared  a 
common  national  life,  and  it  was  impossible  to  discuss 
the  problem  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  nation  as 
a  whole. 

We  have  also  illustrated  these  facts  from  the  stress 
laid  by  the  Levitical  law  on  private  ritual,  and  from 
the  discussions  of  the  problems  of  personal  suffering  in 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  73 

the  prophets,  Psalms,  Job,  and  Ecclesiastes.  Another 
illustration  of  the  individualistic  tendency  is  found 
in  Proverbs,  which  is  almost  exclusively  occupied 
with  individual  conduct.  Moreover,  in  the  post-exile 
period  the  Psalms  seem  to  have  circulated  widely  in 
larger  or  smaller  collections.  Many  are  liturgical, 
and  in  many  others  the  author  spoke  originally  in 
the  name  of  the  community.  But  the  experience  of 
centuries  shows  how  readily  most  of  the  Psalms  adapt 
themselves  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  individual. 
The  demand  for  these  written  Psalters  arose  from 
this  adaptability  to  individual  needs,  and  the  use  of 
such  Psalters  tended  to  foster  and  develop  individual 
religion. 

viii.  The  Antagonism  of  Judaism  and  the  Gentile 
World.  The  Book  of  Esther. — The  exclusive  claims 
which  the  Jews  made  for  Jehovah  and  for  themselves 
necessarily  cut  them  off  from  the  fellowship  of  other 
nations,  and  created  mutual  dislike  between  themselves 
and  the  Gentiles.  It  was  one  thing  to  claim  that 
Jehovah  was  absolute  Lord  of  the  fortunes  of  Israel, 
or  even  supreme  among  the  gods;  it  was  quite 
another  to  exhaust  the  resources  of  contemptuous 
sarcasm  in  showing  that  Bel  and  Nebo  were  mere 
senseless  blocks  of  wood  and  stone,  that  no  word  of 
divine  truth  had  reached  mankind  except  through  the 
Jews,  and  that  the  only  path  of  salvation  led  beneath 
the  yoke  of  submission  to  the  civil  and  religious 
dominion  of  Israel.  Contempt  met  contempt,  and 
found  expression  as  in  the  last  days  of  Judaea,  in 
mutual  outrage.  The  Book  of  Esther  and  such 
Psalm-  as  vii..  xxxv.,  Ixix.,  cix.,  are  the  monuments 


74  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

of  this  hostile  relation  between  Jews  and  Gentiles. 
These  documents,  which  justify  the  Jew  as  against 
the  Gentiles,  follow  on  the  lines  of  Nahum  and 
Habakkuk,  rather  than  on  those  of  the  other 
prophets,  who  condemn  Israelite  and  Gentile  alike. 

ix.  The  Persecutions  op  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
The  Book  of  Daniel.  The  Maccabees,  cir.  b.c. 
170-160. — At  the  same  time  the  antagonism  between 
Jew  and  Gentile  was,  as  we  have  seen,  accompanied 
by  a  division  within  the  community  of  Judaea.  The 
old  predilection  for  foreign  ideas  and  habits  had  by 
no  means  disappeared ;  and  the  Greek  conquest  of 
the  East  by  Alexander  the  Great  (b.c.  334-323) 
exposed  the  Jews  to  the  almost  irresistible  fascinations 
of  Hellenism.  While  the  Temple  priesthood  accepted 
the  privileges  conferred  upon  them  by  the  Levitical 
law,  they  seem  to  have  had  little  zeal  for  Judaism  as 
a  religion,  and  to  have  left  the  maintenance  and 
development  of  the  law  to  the  scribes,  "the  doctors 
of  the  law."  Indeed,  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Levitical  law  (in  B.C.  444),  Ezra,  the  scribe,  and 
Nehemiah,  the  Persian  governor,  took  the  lead,  and 
the  priests  are  scarcely  mentioned.  Thus  the  priest- 
hood offered  no  very  enthusiastic  opposition  to  the 
party  who  wished  to  leaven  Judaism  with  Hellenistic 
ideas.  The  Jews  were  delivered  from  this  new 
danger  by  the  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 
The  attempt  to  suppress  their  national  ritual,  and  to 
destroy  all  copies  of  their  Law,  roused  the  patriotic 
spirit  and  religious  enthusiasm  of  the  Jews.  The 
narratives  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  nerved  the  martyrs 
to  endurance,  and  their  hopes  were  kindled   by  its 


ISRAEL   IN  HISTORY  75 

visions  of  the  ruin  of  their  oppressors.  Consolation 
was  found  for  the  cruel  deaths  of  martyrs,  in  the 
faith  that  they  would  awake  to  everlasting  life  and 
their  persecutors  to  shame  and  everlasting  contempt 
(Dan.  xii.  2).  Psalms  xliv.,  lx.,  and  lxxiv.,  are  often 
referred  to  this  period  of  persecution.  The  heroism 
and  diplomacy  of  the  Maccabees  shook  off  the  yoke 
of  the  Syrian  kings,  and  won  a  brief  independence 
for  the  Jews.  As  the  Maccabees  were  priests,  Psalms 
cxv.  and  cxviii.  which  sing  the  praises  of  the  House 
of  Aaron,  have  been  supposed  to  celebrate  their 
triumph,  and  the  ruler  who  is  "  a  priest  for  ever  after 
the  order  of  Melchizedek  "  (Psalm  ex.  4)  has  some- 
times been  identified  with  some  one  of  the  Macca- 
boeans,  who  were  at  once  civil  rulers,  and  held  the 
high  priesthood  not  by  legitimate  descent,  but  by 
special  divine  appointment. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE   IDEAL   ISRAEL 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    IDEAL    ISRAEL 

9.  The  Kingdom,  i.  The  Messianic  Prophecies. 
— The  standards  set  before  Israel  in  the  legislative 
codes  and  in  the  prophetic  teachings  were  alike 
ideal,  inasmuch  as  neither  of  them  was  ever  even 
approximately  realised.  But,  at  any  rate,  these 
supplied  the  ethical  and  ritual  canons  which  practically 
guided  the  people ;  and  the  Jehovist  leaders  and 
teachers  attempted,  at  various  times,  to  make  the 
national  life  conform  to  them — with  some  degree  of 
success.  In  this  limited  sense,  the  law  and  the 
prophets  may  be  said  to  give  us  a  picture  of  the 
normal  Israel. 

But  the  prophets  were  inspired  with  an  ultimate 
ideal  for  Israel,  which  was  incapable  of  immediate  ap- 
plication to  actual  circumstances — the  ideal  expressed 
by  the  Messianic  prophecies.  No  exact  line  can  be 
drawn  between  the  two ;  Ezek.  xl.-xlviii.  is  a  curious 
blending  of  transcendental  ideals  with  detailed  legisla- 
tion which  served — and  doubtless  was  intended  to 
serve — as  a  practical  basis  for  the  life  of  the  restored 
community.  On  the  other  hand  the  prophet's  pictures 
of  the  ideal  glory  of  Israel  are  constantly  combined 
with  predictions  of  more  immediate  application. 

79 


80  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

The  distinction  between  the  normal  and  the  ideal 
Israel  may  be  stated  thus  :  the  normal  Israel  was  a 
standard  to  which  the  actual  life  of  Israel  was,  in 
some  measure,  conformed :  the  ideal  Israel  involved 
a  new  dispensation  in  which  the  actual  Israel  was 
to  be,  not  so  much  reformed,  as  transfigured.  More- 
over, reformations,  which  assimilated  the  life  of 
Israel  to  the  standard  of  the  normal  Israel,  might 
be  brought  about  by  the  nation  itself  and  its  human 
rulers ;  but  the  changes  which  were  to  inaugurate 
the  ideal  Israel — the  Messianic  Kingdom  of  God — 
were  to  be  brought  about  by  the  special  intervention 
of  Jehovah.  Similarly,  the  prophecies  concerning  the 
ideal  Israel  differ  from  predictions,  such  as  those  of 
the  deliverance  from  Sennacherib  and  the  Return, 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  connect  directly  with  Israel's 
actual  circumstances,  while  the  former  postulate  a 
new  departure.  At  the  same  time  the  ideal  Israel  is 
always  described  in  terms  of  the  constitution  and 
experiences  of  the  actual  Israel,  and  is  thought 
of  as  arising  out  of  the  historical  situation  of  the 
prophet's  age. 

We  might  say  that  approximately  in  the  0.  T. 
the  Messianic  Kingdom  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  Levitical  law,  that  in  the  N".  T.  the  Second 
Coming  and  the  Millennium  bear  to  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount  j  and  as  in  the  N.  T.  the  Second  Coming  is 
almost  always  thought  of  as  about  to  happen  in  the 
near  future;  so  to  the  prophets — the  messengers  of 
Him  to  whom  a  thousand  years  are  as  one  day — the 
"  Day  of  Jehovah "  is  always  to-morrow.  Hence 
their  prophecies  often  have  a  double  aspect — a  limited 


THE    IDEAL   ISRAEL  81 

application  to  the  immediate  future,  and  an  ideal 
element  which  is  to  be  realised  in  the  Messianic 
Kingdom.  The  prophets  themselves  do  not,  as  a 
rule,  distinguish  these  two  aspects. 

ii.  The  Preparation  for  the  Kingdom. — All 
previous  history,  together  with  the  historical  situa- 
tion of  the  prophet's  own  time,  and  its  immediate 
sequel,  are  the  preparation  for  the  inauguration  of 
the  ideal  Israel.  This  principle  underlies  the  Deu- 
teronomic  interpretation  of  history;  the  history 
of  the  world  from  the  creation,  prefixed  to  the 
Levitical  law  ;  and  the  historical  retrospects  of  Psalms 
lxxvh.-lxxix.,  cv.-cvii.  Similarly,  the  prophets  con- 
stantly appeal  to  history  as  illustrating  the  divine 
purpose  which  is  to  be  ultimately  realised  in  the 
true  Israel;  Isa.  v.  2,  xli.,  xliii.,  xliv.  1-8,  etc.; 
Jer.  xxx.-xxxiii. ;  Ezek.  xxxix.  23-29. 

This  idea  is  most  strikingly  expressed  in  the 
Apocalyptic  literature;  e.g.,  in  Daniel  we  have  a 
series  of  visions,  which  set  forth  the  history  of  the 
East  in  the  post-exilic  period  as  leading  up  to  the 
great  deliverance  from  Antiochus. 

iii.  The  Day  of  Jehovah  (E.  V.  "  of  the  Lord  ").— 
The  epoch  which  is  to  inaugurate  the  new  era  is 
"The  Day  of  Jehovah,"  or  "that  day"  (so  j^ssim 
in  all  the  prophets)  in  which,  amid  portents  in  the 
heavens,  place  will  be  made  for  the  New  Israel  by 
the  destruction  of  the  old  Israel  (Samaria, — Amos, 
Hosea,  Isaiah ;  Judah, — all  the  pre-exilic  prophets 
except  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  and  perhaps  Hosea),  and 
of  the  heathen  states  and  empires  (all  the  prophets 
either  generally  or  as  to  individual  realms),  a  Remnant 

6 


82  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

(cf  §  6,  vii.)  will  be  preserved  to  be  the  seed  of  the 
new  Israel. 

The  return  of  the  exiles  from  Babylon  and  the 
establishment  of  a  Jewish  community  which  renounced 
idolatry  and  was  faithful  to  the  divine  law,  altered 
the  form  of  prophetic  teaching  as  to  the  Day  of 
Jehovah.  So  far  as  " that  day"  involved  the  ruin 
of  Israel  and  Judah,  and  even  of  the  international 
system  and  great  empires  of  the  heathen  world,  it 
had  been  accomplished  \  and  sanguine  Jews,  indulged 
the  hope  that,  both  as  to  inner  righteousness  and 
external  splendour,  the  restored  community  was 
to  realise  the  glory  of  the  New  Israel.  But  the 
fulfilment  of  these  hopes  was  deferred.  Judaism 
remained  outwardly  weak  and  inwardly  corrupt ; 
and  first  Persia,  and  then  the  Greek  kingdoms  of 
Egypt  and  Syria  took  the  place  formerly  filled  by 
Assyria  and  Babylon.  Hence,  the  Jews  still  looked 
forward  to  a  Day  of  Jehovah,  which  should  be  a 
further  judgment  on  the  Gentiles,  and  at  last  in- 
augurate the  long-deferred  bliss  of  the  new  Israel. 
Even  in  Ezek.  xxxviii.,  xxxix.,  Israel  after  its  re- 
storation to  Palestine  is  assailed  by  Gog  and  the 
combined  hosts  of  the  enemies,  and  these  perish 
miserably.  Similarly,  Micah  v.,*  Joel  iii.,  Haggai  ii. 
6-9,  20-23;  Zech.  i,  21,  xii.,  xiv.,  contemplate  the 
overthrow  of  the  heathen  as  a  prelude  to  the  complete 
and  final  restoration  of  Israel.*  In  Daniel,  as  in 
Ezekiel,  the  restoration  is  followed  by  new  tribula- 
tion, the  Prince  Messiah,  the  Anointed  Prince  is  cut 

*  Micah  v.,  and  Zech.  xii.,  xiv.,  are  often  supposed  to  be 
pre-exilic. 


Till:    IDEAL  ISRAEL  83 

oil' and  the  city  and  sanctuary  are  destroyed  (ix.  25, 
26).  The  final  Day  of  Jehovah — the  term,  however, 
is  not  used  here — is  introduced  by  a  time  of  un- 
precedented trouble,  the  final  doom  and  deliverance 
are  wrought  by  the  archangel  Michael,  and  are  not 
so  much  a  judgment  of  the  nations  and  a  deliverance 
of  Israel,  as  a  personal  judgment  of  the  righteous 
and  wicked,  preceded  by  a  resurrection  of  the 
dead  (xii.). 

Similarly,  the  post-exilic  literature  renews  in  a 
different  form  the  ancient  teaching  of  the  judgment 
upon  Israel  in  the  day  of  Jehovah.  But  the  Jewish 
community  is  not  definitely  threatened,  as  Samaria 
and  Judah  had  been,  with  ruin  and  captivity.  The 
judgment  is  rather  one  of  purification  than  of 
destruction.  In  Micah  v.  10-14,  horses  and  chariots, 
cities  and  fortresses,  witchcraft  and  soothsayers  and 
idols  are  to  be  cut  off  out  of  Israel ;  but  also  all 
its  enemies  are  to  be  extirpated.  In  Joel  grievous 
trouble  is  to  come  upon  Israel  in  the  Day  of 
Jehovah,  but  this  is  to  issue  in  deliverance  and  the 
abundant  outpouring  of  the  Divine  Spirit.  So  in 
Zech.  iii.,  iv.,  v.,  Israel  is  purged  of  its  sin  ;  and  in 
Zech.  xiii.,  Israel  is  purged  of  prophets  and  the  spirit 
of  uncleanness  (2),  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are 
to  be  exterminated  and  the  remainder  spared  (7-9). 
Similarly,  in  Malachi,  the  messenger  of  the  covenant 
purifies  the  sons  of  Levi  (iii.  1-3),  and  as  in  Dan. 
xii.,  so  in  Mai.  iv.,  God  destroys  the  wicked  and  saves 
the  righteous. 

iv.  The  New  Israel. — The  new  Israel  was  to  be 
constituted   by  the  return  and  reunion   of   the  two 


84  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

branches  of  the  old  Israel — Ephraim  and  Judah — 
as  represented  in  each  case  by  the  Remnant.  This  is 
thought  of  in  Hosea  vi.  2  and  Ezek.  xxxvii.  as  the 
resurrection  of  the  nation.  Such  is  the  unanimous 
teaching  of  the  prophets  who  give  the  picture  of 
the  restoration  in  any  detail  (Isa.  x.  20-23,  xi. 
10-16,  xliii.  1-7;  Jer.  xxiii.  5-8,  xxxi.  27-34; 
Ezek.  xxxvii.  15-28).  The  establishment  of  the 
returned  exiles  at  Jerusalem  was  never  accepted 
as  a  complete  fulfilment  of  these  prophecies,  even  as 
far  as  Judah  was  concerned  ;  the  post-exilic  prophets 
continued  to  expect  the  return  of  the  dispersed  Jews, 
as  well  as  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  Zech.  viii.  7-15;  but 
after  a  time  the  Ten  Tribes  were  forgotten,  and 
Malachi,  Joel,  and  Daniel  seem  conscious  of  no  other 
Israel  than  the  Jews  of  Judaea  and  the  dispersion. 
Thus  the  ancient  national  and  religious  unity  of 
Israel  was  restored,  not  by  the  reunion  of  the  Ten 
Tribes  with  Judah,  but  by  their  final  disappearance 
from  Israel. 

v.  Palestine  as  the  Home  of  the  New  Israel. — 
The  sacred  land  was  to  be,  as  of  old,  the  home  of 
the  chosen  people,  and  was  to  be  rendered  more 
worthy  of  its  high  vocation  by  the  transformation  of 
its  physical  features.  There  was  to  be  a  great  river 
full  of  fish  flowing  from  the  Temple  to  the  Dead 
Sea,  and  the  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea  were  to  be 
healed  (Ezek.  xlvii.  1-12.  Cf.  Zech.  xiv.  1-11).  The 
land  was  to  be  endowed  with  extraordinary  fertility 
(Isa.  xxx.  23-26,  xxxii.  15 ;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  26,  27, 
xlvii.  9-12;  Joel  ii.  18,  hi.  18;  Amos  ii.  13; 
Zech.   viii.    12;    Mai.  hi.   11,   12).     The  wild   beasts 


THE  IDEAL   ISRAEL  85 

were  to  become  tame  and  harmless  (Isa.  xi.  1-9, 
lxv.  25).  The  Israelites  would  enjoy  long  life 
(lxv.  20-22)  in  this  Paradise  regained. 

According  to  Ezek.  xlviii.,  the  new  Israel  was  to 
content  itself  with  occupying  Palestine  west  of 
Jordan;  but,  according  to  Obad.  19,  Benjamin  was 
to  inhabit  Gilead. 

vi.  The  Constitution  of  the  New  Israel. — The 
scheme  in  Ezek.  xlviii.  reproduces  the  main  features 
of  the  life  of  ancient  Israel — the  division  into  two 
kingdoms  of  course  excepted.  The  ancient  tribes,  the 
monarchy,  the  City  of  Jerusalem,  the  Temple  and  its 
priesthood  were  all  to  be  revived;  and  the  restoration 
of  these  institutions  is  for  the  most  part  taken  for 
granted  by  all  the  prophets. 

vii.  Moral  and  Spiritual  Perfection.— The  new 
Israel  is  to  be  perfect,  freed  both  from  moral 
corruption,  and  from  false  faith  and  worship.  The 
people  is  to  be  wholly  consecrated  to  Jehovah 
(Zech.  xiv.  20,  21),  and  the  soil  is  to  be  cultivated 
by  foreign  slaves,  while  the  Israelites  worship  their 
God  (Isa.  lxi.  4-6). 

viii.  The  New  Covenant. — The  constant  backsliding 
and  persistent  impenitence  of  the  old  Israel  had  sho^n 
that  Israel  of  itself  was  incapable  of  consistent  lo\  alty 
to  Jehovah.  Therefore  the  ancient  covenant  which 
sought  to  discipline  Israel  by  rewards  and  punish- 
ments is  to  be  done  away  with.  Jehovah  will  no 
longer  rule  by  external  constraint,  but  by  the  in- 
fluence of  His  Spirit  in  the  hearts  of  men.  He  no 
longer  looks  to  chastisement  to  produce  amendment, 
but  will,  Himself,  change  the  nature  of   Israel  and 


86  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

give  it  a  new  heart.  The  divine  revelation  is  to  be 
written  on  the  heart  rather  than  in  books ;  men  are 
to  be  independent  of  religious  teachers.  Each  in- 
dividual is  to  possess  direct  knowledge  of  Jehovah 
(Jer.  xxxi.  31-34,  xxxii.  39,  40;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  26,  27). 
Ezekiel,  however,  does  not  limit  himself  to  the  "  new 
heart  of  flesh,"  and  the  "  new  spirit  "  which  Jehovah 
is  to  implant  in  His  people.  He  also  conceives  the 
new  Israel  as  organised  on  the  basis  of  a  ritual  and 
legislative  code. 

ix.  Israel  and  the  Heathen. — Israel  is  to  be 
free  from  foreign  dominion,  and  to  dwell  securely 
in  unbroken  peace  (Isa.  liv.  17;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  28; 
Micah  iv.  4).  It  is  to  be  supreme  over  all  other 
nations,  and  they  are  to  minister  to  it  with  their 
labour  and  wealth  (Isa.  xlix.  22,  23,  lx.,  lxi.  4-6 ; 
Hag.  ii.  7,  8).  Some  passages  even  suggest  that 
the  new  Israel  will  ultimately  embrace  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth — e.g.,  in  Isa.  xix.  18-25,  Egypt 
and  Assyria  are  ranked  with  Israel  as  peoples  of 
Jehovah. 

x.  Religious  Supremacy  of  Israel. — The  Temple 
at  Jerusalem  is  to  become  the  great  place  of 
pilgrimage  and  worship  for  all  mankind,  the  centre 
of  revelation  (Isa.  ii.  1-4;  Micah  iv.  1-3;  Isa. 
xlv.  14,  lvi.  1-8,  lx.;  Zech.  xiv.  16-19). 

Israel,  as  the  servant  of  Jehovah,  is  to  teach 
His  will  to  the  Gentiles  (Isa.  xlii.  4-6,  xlix.  6, 
lxvi.  19,  20). 

xi.  The  Kingdom  of  God. — Jehovah  is  the  Divine 
King  of  the  new  Israel  as  of  the  old,  and  it  is, 
therefore,  the  eternal  Kingdom  of  God  among  men. 


THE  IDEAL   ISRAEL  87 

10.  The  Messiah,  i.  Messiah  as  King. — To  speak 
of  the  Messiah  as  King  would  have  been  a  truism  to 
the  ancient  Israelite,  because  "  Jehovah's  Anointed," 
or  "  Messiah,"  was  a  familiar  title  of  the  Israelite 
kings  (1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  etc.).  Dan.  ix.  25,  26,  is  the 
chief  0.  T.  passage  which  has  made  "  Messiah "  a 
kind  of  technical  term  for  the  divinely  sent  Deliverer 
of  Israel.* 

The  fact  that  the  term  Messiah  could  be  so 
understood,  and  that  afterwards  it  was  universally 
and  permanently  adopted  to  denote  this  Deliverer, 
shows  that  lie  was  chiefly  thought  of  as  the  King  of 
Israel. 

In  one  sense  Jehovah  was,  Himself,  the  King  of 
Israel,  but  in  the  old  Israel  the  Heavenly  King  had 
His  earthly  representative  and  counterpart,  in  the 
reigning  sovereign  of  the  house  of  David;  and  so 
in  the  new  Kingdom  of  God  the  one  conspicuous 
figure  is  the  King,  Jehovah's  Anointed  or  Messiah, 
the  Prince  of  the  house  of  David. 

Most  of  the  prophets  connect  the  future  destiny  of 
Israel  with  the  house  of  David.  The  child  of  Isa. 
ix.  7  is  to  sit  "  upon  the  throne  of  David,"  and  be 
over  his  kingdom,  to  establish  and  uphold  it  with 
judgment  and  righteousness  from  henceforth  even  for 
ever.  In  Isa.  xi.  1,  the  deliverer  is  a  rod  out  of 
the  stem  of  Jesse.  In  Isa.  xvi.  5,  the  king  who 
is  to  reign  "in  truth  .  .  .  judging,  and  seeking 
judgment,"  is  to  have  "  his  throne  .  .  .  established 
in  mercy  in  the  tent  of  David."     Hosea  iii.  5  looks 

*  Messiah  even  here  is  often  interpreted  of  the  succession 
of  post-exilic  high  priests. 


88  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

forward  to  the  time  when  "  the  Israelites  shall  return 
and  seek  Jehovah  their  God,  and  David  their  king." 
n/  Amos  ix.  11  promises  that  the  Lord  "will  raise  up 
the  tabernacle  of  David."  In  Micah  v.  2,  "  the  ruler 
in  Israel  "  is  to  come  forth  from  Bethlehem,  David's 
birthplace.  In  Jer.  xxiii.  5,  6,  xxxiii.  15,  16,  Jehovah 
raises  up  unto  David  a  righteous  branch  (gemah, 
growth.  Of.  Isa.  iv.  2),  a  wise  and  prudent  King 
whose  name  is  Jehovah  (Jidqenu — Jehovah  is  our 
righteousness.  In  Ezek.  xxxiv.  23,  24,  xxxvii.  24, 
25,  "  My  servant  David  "  is  to  be  the  shepherd  and 
prince  of  restored  and  reunited  Israel.  Zech.  iii.  8 
applies  Jeremiah's  prophecy  of  the  "  righteous  branch  " 
to  Zerubbabel,  the  prince  of  the  house  of  David,  and 
in  Hag.  ii.  23  Zerubbabel  is  the  chosen  of  Jehovah. 
In  Zech.  xii.  8  it  is  said  that  when  "  Jehovah  defends 
the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem "  "  the  house  of  David 
shall  be  as  Gocl,  as  the  angel  of  Jehovah  before 
them."     (Of.  Isa.  Iv.  3,  4.) 

The  future  Saviour  of  Israel  was  so  entirely  identified 
with  the  expected  restoration  of  the  Davidic  dynasty, 
that  all  the  unfulfilled  hopes  which  had  attached  to 
the  ancient  monarchs,  all  the  features  which  prophets 
and  psalmists  had  ascribed  to  the  perfect  or  ideal 
king,  were  transferred  to  the  Messiah,  and  passages 
which  expressed  these  hopes  or  ideals  came  to  be 
recognised,  as  we  gather  from  1ST.  T.  and  elsewhere, 
as  prophecies  of  the  Messiah — e.g.,  Psalms  ii.,  xviii., 
xx.,  xlv.,  lxi.,  lxxii.,  ex. 

The  character  and  attributes  of  the  Royal  Saviour 
of  Israel  are  set  forth  in  such  passages  as  those 
already  referred  to.     He  is  the  ideal  King,  perfectly 


THE  IDEAL   ISRAEL  89 

endowed  with  all  royal,  physical,  mental,  moral,  and 
spiritual  qualities. 

His  government  is  absolutely  righteous  and  bene- 
ficent at  home  j  He  is  victorious  abroad,  and  secures 
peace  and  dominion  for  Israel;  in  Dan.  vii.  14,  He 
attains  to  the  universal  empire  as  "  a  son  of  man," 
but  He  is  also  the  symbol  of  the  Divine  Presence 
with  Israel — Immanuel  (Isa.  vii.  14,  viii.  8).  While 
the  O.  T.  does  not  expressly  ascribe  a  superhuman  or 
strictly  divine  character  to  Messiah — even  the  El 
Gibbor  (E.V.  "  Mighty  God  ")  of  Isa.  ix.  6,  can  be 
paralleled  from  epithets  applied  to  human  kings : 
e.g.,  2  Sam.  xiv.  17  ;  Isa.  x.  21  probably  refers  to 
ix.  6 — the  terms  in  which  He  is  spoken  of  convey  an 
almost  irresistible  suggestion  of  His  superhuman 
nature.  The  hopes  and  aspirations  of  the  Messianic 
prophecies  could  never  be  realised  in  a  mere  man; 
the  two  ideas,  of  Jehovah  as  the  Divine  King  of 
Israel,  and  of  the  King  who  was  to  be  his  perfect 
representative  upon  earth  might  at  first  seem  parallel, 
but  they  really  converged,  and  coalesced  at  last ; 
similarly  in  His  functions  as  Saviour  of  Israel  the 
Messiah  is  the  representative  of  Jehovah,  and  Jehovah 
is  often  spoken  of  as  de  livering  Israel  Himself,  per- 
sonally and  directly ;  He  also  is  the  Saviour  of  Israel 
(Isa.  xl.-xlvi.  passim — e.g.,  xl.  9-11,  xlix.  26),  "I 
Jehovah  am  the  Saviour."  (Cf.  Jer.  xiv.  8;  Zech. 
ix.  12-17;  Zeph.  iii.  15-17.)  Thus  the  ideas  of 
the  Divine  King  and  Saviour  on  the  one  hand,  and 
of  His  representative  on  earth,  the  Messianic  King 
Saviour,  naturally  met  and  merged  at  last  in  the 
doctrine  of  the  Incarnation.     Even  in  the  0.  T.,  in 


90  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

Mai.  iii.  1,  the  Lord  (Adonai),  the  Messenger  of  the 
Covenant,  is  not  clearly  distinguished  from  Jehovah 
Himself. 

The  Messiah  as  the  instrument  of  God's  gracious 
purposes  for  Israel  and  His  judgments  on  the  Gentiles, 
is  the  counterpart  of  the  Assyrian  kings  and  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  whom  God  had  commissioned  to 
execute  His  judgments  upon  Israel  and  its  neigh- 
bours. The  close  though  antithetic  relation  between 
the  office  of  these  Gentile  monarchs  and  that  of  the 
Davidic  Messiah  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that,  when 
the  deliverance  of  Israel  is  to  be  effected  by  the 
Gentile  Cyrus,  he  also  is  called  Jehovah's  Messiah 
(Isa.  xlv.  1). 

At  times,  as  we  have  partly  shown  above 
(Micah  v.  2),  the  connection  of  the  Messianic  King 
with  David  is  only  implied,  or  even  left  doubtful 
(Isa.  xxxii.  1,  xxxiii.  17;  Zech.  ix.  9-11).  In  some 
passages  the  functions  of  the  Messiah  are  transferred 
to  a  number  of  princes  or  rulers — e.g.,  Micah  v.  5, 
"  seven  shepherds  and  eight  chiefs." 

However,  all  fches3  varying  ideas  concerning  the 
Messiah  agree  in  the  essential  point  of  ascribing  the 
final  salvation  of  Israel,  and  therefore  of  the  world 
(cf.  §  33),  to  a  Monarch  who  shall  be  the  divinely 
accredited  representative  of  Jehovah,  who  is  com- 
missioned by  Him  to  deliver  His  people  from  foreign 
enemies,  and  to  rule  them  righteously  in  prosperity 
and  peace.  These  aspects  of  the  Messiah's  person  and 
work  are  almost  always  combined  with  his  connection 
with  the  Davidic  dynasty. 

ii.  Messiah  as  Prophet. — The  suffering  Servant  of 


THE   IDEAL   ISRAEL  91 

Jehovah  (Isa.  lii.  13— liii.  12).  Though  the  term 
Messiah  strictly  describes  Him  as  King,  yet  it  has 
been  extended  to  include  other  aspects  of  His  person 
and  work.  As  in  the  last  centuries  of  the  monarchy 
of  Judah  the  prophets  eclipsed  the  kings,  we  naturally 
expect  to  find  the  expected  Saviour  is  to  be  prophet 
as  well  as  king.  Indeed,  the  two  functions  of  pro- 
phet and  civil  ruler  were  actually  combined  in  Moses 
(Deut.  xviii.  15),  in  Samuel  (1  Sam.  iii.  20)  and,  to 
some  extent,  even  in  Saul  (1  Sam.  x.  11,  ff.).  Acts 
ii.  30  is  quite  in  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the 
O.  T.  in  speaking  of  David  as  a  prophet. 

Moreover,  the  prophets  attempted,  by  direct  spiri- 
tual means  or  indirect  influence,  the  same  tasks  that 
Gentile  kings  and  the  Israelite  Messiah  accomplished 
by  the  sword.  Jeremiah's  commission,  for  instance, 
is  "  to  be  set "  over  the  nations  and  kingdoms,  "  to  root 
out,  pull  down,  destroy  and  throw  down,  to  build,  and 
to  plant  "  (i.  10).  On  the  other  hand  the  Messianic 
King  of  Isa.  xi.  1-10  has  the  prophetic  gifts  of 
Jehovah's  "  spirit  of  wisdom  and  understanding,  of 
counsel  and  might,  of  knowledge  and  of  the  fear  of 
Jehovah  "  (xi.  3). 

Accordingly,  in  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.,  the  Messianic  King  re- 
cedes into  the  background,  and  the  deliverer  appears 
as  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  entrusted  with  a  prophetic 
mission  first  to  Israel  and  then  to  mankind  (xlix.  5,  G). 
Though  this  Servant  sometimes  stands  for  Israel  or 
the  believing  Remnant  (cf.  §  10,  iii.),  he  is  throughout 
a  prophet,  and  when  in  lii.  13 — liii.  12  he  is  in- 
dividualised we  have  to  note  that  the  Saviour  of 
Israel  and  of  the  world  now  appears  as  a  prophet. 


92  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

But  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  will  not  redeem  Israel 
merely  by  teaching  and  preaching.  In  the  last  days  of 
the  Jewish  monarchy  God's  faithful  servants  had  been 
conspicuous  for  their  sufferings  ;  Josiah  had  been  cut 
off  in  the  prime  of  his  manhood,  Jeremiah  had  been, 
for  the  greater  part  of  his  life,  "  despised  and  rejected 
of  men."  Isa.  liii.  5-10  sees  in  the  sufferings  of  the 
Eighteous  One  a  vicarious  atonement  for  the  sin  of 
Israel :  and  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  delivers  Israel 
from  sin  by  His  death.  In  Daniel  we  find  both 
aspects  of  the  Messiah — the  conquering  King,  in  the 
universal  and  eternal  King  who  is  almost  identified 
with  the  Most  High  (vii.  14,  17);  and  the  Sufferer, 
in  Messiah  the  Prince  (ix.  26)  who  is  cut  off.* 
(Of.,  however,  §  10,  i.,  note,  and  iv.) 

As  the  conception  of  Messiah  as  the  ideal  king  led 
to  a  Messianic  application  of  the  Psalms  dealing  with 
the  king  and  kingdom  :  so  the  idea  of  the  vicarious 
suffering  of  the  Messiah  seems  to  have  led  to  a 
similar  application  of  Psalms  dealing  with  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  righteous.  Hence  in  N.  T.,  Psalms  xxii., 
xxxv.,  xli.,  lxix.,  are  recognised  as  Messianic  and 
applied  to  Christ. 

iii.  The  Messiah  as  the  True  Israel. — We  have 
seen  in  §  7,  vii.  that  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.,  with  an  elasticity 
which  it  is  difficult  for  the  mcdern  Western  mind 
to  follow,  sees  in  the  Servant  of  Jehovah  at  once 
Israel  (xli v.  1,  2,  xlv.  4,  xlix.  3  ;  etc.),  and  the 
individual  Saviour  of  Israel  (lii.  1 — liii.  12  ;  etc.).     The 

*  The  A.V.  translation  of  the  next  clause  "  but  not  for 
himself  "  is  corrected  by  R. V.  to  "  and  shall  have  nothing  "  ; 
marg.  "there  shall  be  none  belonging  to  him." 


THE   IDEAL   ISRAEL  93 

Israel  here  is,  for  the  most  part,  the  true  Israel  of 
believers,  the  Remnant  of  the  elder  prophets  (so 
apparently,  xlix.  5.  Cf.  xlvi.  3).  Thus  the  idea  is 
suggested  that  the  true  Israel,  which  is  ultimately  to 
be  co-extensive  with  the  actual  Israel,  becomes  one 
with  the  Messiah  or  Saviour  of  Israel  and  the  world. 
Similarly,  in  the  N.  T.,  Christ  is  not  only  the  Personal 
Saviour,  but  one  with  the  Church  as  a  vine  with  its 
branches  (John  xvi.  8),  and  a  body  with  its  limbs 
(1  Cor.  xii.  27). 

iv.  The  Messiah  as  Priest. — The  royal  and 
priestly  functions  were  closely  allied  in  the  ancient 
world,  and  so  in  Israel  we  find  David  and  subsequent 
kings  sacrificing  and  exercising  other  priestly  func- 
tions. Hence  the  kingly  status  of  the  Messiah  almost 
implies  His  priesthood.  But  in  the  post- exilic  period 
the  title  Messiah  was  extended  to  the  High  Priest 
(Lev.  iv.  3,  5,  16;  Dan.  ix.  25,  26),  as  the  highest 
authority  in  the  Jewish  state,  as  well  as  in  the 
Jewish  Church.  Thus  in  Zechariah,  even  when 
Zerubbabel,  the  prince  of  the  House  of  David,  was 
governor  for  the  Persians,  and  still  therefore  the 
civil  head  of  the  community,  the  high  priest 
Joshua  is  placed  on  a  level  with  him,  and  the  two 
together  are  spoken  of  as  the  "two  sons  of  oil" — 
i.e.,  "anointed  ones,"  or  Messiahs  (iv.  14) — and  in 
the  present  Hebrew  text  of  vi.  9-13  Jeremiah's 
prophecy  of  the  branch  is  applied  to  the  high  priest 
Joshua.  In  the  original  text  it  is  true,  Zerubbabel 
is  the  branch,  and  Joshua  sits  at  his  right  hand ;  but 
the  alteration  shows  that  at  some  p?riod  of  post-exilic 
Judaism   special    stress    was    laid    on    the    priestlv 


94  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

character  of  the  Messiah.     So  Psalm  ex.  depicts  the 
Saviour  of  Israel  as  both  civil  ruler  and  priest. 

11.  New  Heavens  and  New  Earth.— At  times  the 
prophetic  vision  widens  to  a  far  horizon,  where  earth 
and  heaven  meet  and  blend  so  that  the  one  can 
scarcely  be  distinguished  from  the  other.  Jehovah 
the  Heavenly  Saviour  and  the  Messiah  upon  earth 
appear  one  and  the  same,  §  10,  i.  :  the  vindication  of 
Israel  by  its  victory  over  the  nations  is  combined 
with  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  and  the  final  judg- 
ment, §  32  :  the  Day  of  Jehovah  upon  earth  is 
ushered  in  by  celestial  portents  (Hag.  ii.  6),  and 
Jehovah  not  only  renews  the  face  of  Palestine 
(§  9,  v.),  but  creates  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth 
(Isa.  lxvi.  17,  22). 


CHAPTER  IV 

JEHOVAH  AS   THE  GOD   OF  ISRAEL 


CHAPTER    IV 

JEHOVAH    AS    THE    GOD    OF    ISRAEL 

12.  Names. — The  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  is 
expressed  by  various  names  and  titles.  Both  in 
ancient  proper  names  and  various  passages  we  find 
Baal  =  Lord,  (Ish-baal,  cf.  Hosea  iii.  6),  Melek=  King, 
(Malchi-ram,  cf.  Isa.  xliv.  6),  Zur  =  Iiock  (Pedah-zur, 
cf.  2  Sam.  xxii.  32),  Ab  =  Father  (Abi-ram,  cf.  Jer. 
xxxi.  9),  used  as  names  or  titles  of  the  God  of  Israel. 

But  the  personal  name  of  God,  as  the  God  of 
Israel,  is  now  represented  in  the  Hebrew  Text  of 
O.  T.  by  the  four  consonants,  YHWH.  When  the 
English  Version  attempts  to  reproduce  this  name 
they  represent  it  by  Jehovah,  following  an  ancient 
misunderstanding  (cf.  below).  The  original  pro- 
nunciation of  this  name  is  not  certainly  known, 
though  it  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
Yahweh.*  Its  primitive  etymology  and  significance 
are  still  more  uncertain,  (for  the  interpretation  given 
in  Ex.  iii.  14,  see  §  37),  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  they  were  known  in  Israel  during  the 
historical   period :    consequently  they  are  no  more  a 

*  Yahwe.  Yahveh,  Yahve,  etc.,  are  merely  equivalent 
spellings  of  Yahweh.  The  use  of  J  is  a  Germanism  for  Y. 
Cf.  Preface. 

'■'7  7 


98  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

part  of  0.  T.  Revelation,  than  the  etymology  of  the 
word  God  is  a  part  of  English  theology.  YHWH 
(E.  V.  "  Jehovah  ")  was  to  the  ordinary  Israelite  simply 
a  proper  name  for  the  God  he  worshipped,  as  "God" 
now  is  to  the  Christian. 

The  loss  of  the  pronunciation  of  YHWH  was  due 
to  a  peculiar  use  of  another  divine  name,  ADONAI 
(Lord).  Under  later  Judaism  an  exaggerated  reverence 
for  the  Most  Sacred  Name  made  the  Jews  to  refrain 
from  using  YHWH,  and  substitute  for  it  either 
ADONAI  or  ELOHIM.  They  were  followed  by 
the  LXX.  and  Vulgate,  and  from  the  Vulgate  the 
English  versions  adopted  the  habit  of  writing  LORD 
or  GOD  for  YHWH. 

To  secure  the  substitution  of  Adonai  for  YHWH 
in  the  public  reading  of  0.  T.,  the  vowels  of  Adonai 
were  attached  to  the  four  consonants  YHWH  as 
a  q'ri  perpetuum,  or  standing  direction  that  Adonai 
should  be  read  for  YHWH.*  When  the  Jewish 
tradition  was  unknown  amongst  Christians  the 
consonants  were  mistakenly  combined  with  the 
attached  vowels ;  and,  being  slightly  modified,  the 
linguistically  impossible  form  Jehovah  was  produced. 

This  Name  is  used  to  form  the  names  of  persons, 
either  as  prefix  JEHO  or  affix  IAH;  and  of  places, 
especially  altars — e.g.,  Jehovah -jireh,  -nissi,  -shalom. 
But  its  most  significant  and  frequent  combination  is 
YHWH  Q'BAOTH,  E.V.  "LORD  of  Hosts,"  N.T. 
"  Lord  of  Sabaoth  "  (Rom.  ix.  29  ;  James  v.  4).  This 
title  is  specially  common  in  Amos,  Isaiah  (both  parts), 

*  If  Adonai  immediately  precedes  YHWH,  the  latter  takes 
the  vowels  of  ELOHIM,  hence  E.V.  "  GOD." 


JEHOVAH  AS  THE   GOD   OF  ISRAEL     99 

Jeremiah,  Haggai,  Zechariah  (both  parts)  and 
Malachi ;  in  1  Sam.  iv.  4 ;  2  Sam.  vi.  2,  it  seems 
specially  connected  with  the  ark.  The  title  is 
altogether  wanting  in  Judges,  in  Ezekiel,  the 
Pentateuch  and  Joshua,  in  Joel,  Obadiah,  and  Jonah  ; 
and  with  the  exception  of  a  few  Psalms,  and  some 
passages  which  Chronicles  borrows  from  Samuel, 
"the  Lord  of  Hosts"  does  not  occur  at  all  in  the 
Hagiographa. 

The  term  "  hosts  "  has  been  variously  explained — ■ 
of  the  actual  Israelite  armies,  the  stars,  the  angelic 
hosts,  the  elemental  powers.  Probably  at  different 
periods  each  of  these  interpretations  was  current 
among  the  Jews  themselves.  Each  interpretation 
would  signify  the  champion  of  Israel  against  its 
enemies,  whether  by  means  of  the  arms  of  Israel 
itself,  or  by  divine  forces  which  dispensed  with 
human  co-operation.  This  sense  would  harmonise 
with  the  apparent  connection  with  the  ark,  which 
in  early  times  was  carried  into  battle  as  the  symbol 
of  Jehovah's  presence  with  the  armies  of  His  people 
(2  Sam.  xi.  11). 

13.  Anthropomorphism  and  Anthropopathism. — 
According  to  the  necessities  of  human  thought  and 
language,  there  is  much  anthropomorphism  and 
anthropopathism  in  O.  T.  We  read  of  Jehovah's 
eyes,  nostrils,  ears,  mouth,  arms,  feet,  fingers,  etc. 
He  sees,  smells,  hears,  laughs,  strikes,  stands,  sits, 
walks,  etc.  Sometimes  Jehovah  is  even  spoken  of  in 
terms  borrowed  from  animal  life ;  He  has  wings  ;  He 
flies  and  roars.  His  moral  and  mental  attributes  are 
also  expressed  in  the  same  terms  as  those  of   man. 


100  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

O.  T.  does  not,  however,  intend  to  transfer  to  God 
the  limitations  and  defects  of  human  life  and 
character;  such  language  merely  serves  to  make 
the  divine  nature,  attributes,  and  operations  approxi- 
mately intelligible  to  men. 

14.  The  Bond  between  Jehovah  and  Israel, 
i.  Election  and  Divine  Sovereignty. — The  history 
of  Israel  is  initiated  by  God's  choice  of  the  nation ; 
is  controlled  throughout  by  His  purpose ;  and  leads 
up  at  last,  in  spite  of  sin,  and  failure,  and  suffering, 
to  the  realisation  of  that  abiding  purpose.  Jehovah 
is  the  King  of  Israel,  and  the  Lord  and  owner  of 
Palestine  (cf.  §  18,  i.).  This  election  created  a 
relation  which  is  set  forth,  not  only  as  that  between 
king  and  subjects,  but  also  as  that  between  Providence 
and  the  objects  of  its  care,  between  father  and  son, 
husband  and  wife,  patron  and  client,  and  between 
the  two  parties  to  a  covenant. 

ii.  Providence. — 0.  T.  recognises  the  living  presence 
and  immediate  working  of  God  in  all  operations  and 
processes  of  nature,  and  all  events  of  national  and 
individual  history. 

iii.  Fatherhood. — From  the  time  of  Hosea  xi.  1 
onwards  the  prophets  often  use  the  term  "  Father  " 
to  describe  the  relation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel.  In 
using  this  figure  0.  T.  is  not  concerned  with  the  way 
in  which  the  relation  of  father  and  son  originates ; 
it  does  not  suggest  any  essential,  almost  physical, 
bond,  which  might  seem  to  exist  independently  of 
any  divine  choice  (cf.  1).  The  term  sets  forth  the 
actual  existing  relation  between  Jehovah  and  Israel ; 
His  authority  over  and  affection  for  His  people. 


JEHoVAH  AS   THE   GOD    OF  ISRAEL    101 

iv.  Marriage. — In  Ilosea  ii.,  iii. ;  Jer.  ii.  2;  Isa. 
liv.  5,  6;  Ezek.  xvi.,  Jehovah  is  spoken  of  as  the 
husband  of  Israel;  and  the  same  figure  is  implied  in 

the  constant  description  of  idolatry  as  adultery,  or 
going  a- whoring  after  other  gods.  This  figure  must 
be  understood  in  the  light  of  woman's  dependent 
position  in  the  East.  So  in  Ezek.  xvi.,  Jerusalem 
was  helpless  and  forlorn  when  Jehovah  espoused  her 
out  of  pure  compassion.  This  figure  chiefly  emphasises 
the  free  choice  of  Jehovah,  the  unswerving  fidelity 
owed  to  Him  by  His  people,  and  the  entire  dependence 
of  Israel.  It  may  also  imply,  to  a  very  limited 
extent,  Israel's  free  acceptance  of  Jehovah,  "the 
love  of  her  espousals"  (Jer.  ii.  2). 

v.  Israel  the  "  Ger  "  or  "  Client  "  of  Jehovah. — 
In  a  few  passages  (Psalms  xv.  1,  xxxix.  12)  Israel  is 
spoken  of  as  Jehovah's  Ger — i.e.,  a  resident  alien 
under  the  protection  of  the  chief  of  a  tribe.  This 
figure  again  emphasises  the  free  grace  of  Jehovah 
and  the  helpless  dependence  of  Israel. 

vi.  The  Covenant. — A  covenant  was  the  mutual 
agreement  of  two  or  more  contracting  parties  upon 
conditions  profitable  to  both ;  it  did  not  necessarily 
imply  equality  between  the  contracting  parties,  for 
it  is  even  applied  to  the  terms  imposed  by  a  conqueror 
upon  his  defeated  enemy,  or  by  a  suzerain  upon  his 
vassal  (Ezek.  xvii.  13).  In  making  a  covenant  with 
Israel,  Jehovah  declared  His  gracious  purposes  towards 
His  people,  and  the  conditions  upon  which  they  might 
enjoy  His  promised  blessings;  they,  on  their  part, 
undertook  to  faithfully  observe  all  His  commands. 
As  far  as  Jehovah  was  concerned  a  covenant  did  not 


102  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

greatly  differ  from  a  solemn  promise  made  by  Him  to 
His  chosen. 

In  Gen. — 2  Kings,  the  earliest  history  of  Israel  has 
for  its  epochs  a  series  of  covenants ;  with  Noah  after 
the  Mood  (Gen.  ix.) ;  with  Abraham,  when  Canaan 
was  promised  to  his  descendants  (Gen.  xv.  xvii.) ;  at 
Sinai,  in  connection  with  the  giving  of  the  Law, 
(Exod.  xxxiv.  10 ;  Deut.  v.  2) ;  under  Joshua,  after  the 
Conquest  of  Canaan  (Josh.  xxiv.  25);  under  Josiah, 
in  recognition  of  the  authority  of  Deuteronomy 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  3).  Judges  and  Samuel  record  no  cove- 
nants between  Jehovah  and  Israel;  but  the  promise 
of  permanence  to  the  Davidic  dynasty  is  spoken  of  as 
an  everlasting  covenant  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  5.  One  of 
the  oldest  sections  of  the  Pentateuch  (Exod.  xx.  20 — ■ 
xxiii.  33)  is  called  the  "  Book  of  the  Covenant " 
(xxiv.  7) ;  Hosea  ii.  18,  vi.  7,  viii.  1 ;  Jer.  xi.  10, 
etc.,  xxxi.  31,  ff. ;  Ezek.  xx.  37,  etc. ;  Isa.  xlii.  6,  etc., 
emphasise  this  aspect  of  Jehovah's  relation  to  Israel. 
At  the  close  of  the  O.  T.  history,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
established  the  Levitical  Law  as  the  code  and 
canon  of  Judaism  (Neh.  x.  29,  ff.)  by  a  covenant.* 
These  covenants  have  many  differences  of  detail 
and  circumstance ;  but  they  agree  in  substance. 
Jehovah  promises  prosperity  to  Israel  or  its  repre- 
sentatives on  condition  of  obedience  to  His  revealed 
will ;  Israel  promises  to  observe  this  condition,  though 
the  promise  is  sometimes  taken  for  granted  and  not 
stated.  In  such  cases  the  covenant  is  concluded 
simply  by  a  declaratory  act  on  the  part  of  Jehovah  ; 
it  is  offered  to  Israel  or  the  Patriarchs,  and  its  accept- 
*  The  word  "  covenant,"  however,  is  not  used  here. 


JEHOVAH  AS  THE  GOD   OF  ISRAEL    103 

ance  is  assumed.  In  other  cases  the  conclusion  of  a 
covenant  is  virtually  the  acceptance  by  Israel  of  the 
terms  offered  in  the  law  and  the  prophets. 

15.  The  Moral  Attributes  of  Jehovah. — As  moral 
attributes  can  only  be  manifested  in  connection  with 
an  object,  these  attributes  are  revealed  in  the  dealings 
of  Jehovah  with  Israel.  Accordingly  O.  T.  is  not 
so  much  interested  in  what  Jehovah  is  in  Himself, 
as  in  what  He  is  in  His  relations  to  Israel.  His 
righteousness,  truth,  etc.,  are  not  so  much  abstract 
attributes  of  His  essential  nature,  as  modes  of  His 
action  with  regard  to  His  people.  And,  again,  while 
ultimately  as  a  matter  of  abstract  theology,  there  is 
no  standard  for  God  but  Himself,  in  the  practical 
understanding  and  application  of  these  truths  it  is 
always  assumed  that  the  divine  standard  of  righteous- 
ness answers  to  the  highest  human  ideals.  It  trans- 
cends and  corrects  them,  but  does  not  essentially 
contradict  or  reverse  the- in. 

i.  Trustworthiness  and  Self-Consistency. — He 
shows  righteousness  {^edeq,  cdaqa),  as  acting  in  con- 
formity with  the  true  standard  of  conduct — i.e.,  His 
Revelation  of  Himself  and  His  Will.  This  standard 
is  reflected,  though  partially  and  imperfectly,  in  the 
human  standards,  based  on  men's  moral  instincts. 
He  shows  faithfulness  (emuna)  by  persisting  in  His 
purposes  and  fulfilling  His  promises,  and  truth  (emeth) 
by  the  fact  that  His  utterances  express  His  thought, 
feeling,  and  intention.  These  divine  qualities  are 
specially  manifested  in  the  persistency  of  Jehovah's 
choice  of  Israel  (Isa.  xli.  8-10),  and  by  His  faithful- 
ness to  His  covenant  (Ezek.  xxxvii.  26  ;  cf.  xxxvi.  21). 


104  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

ii.  Benevolence.  —  He  loves  Israel,  and  shows 
"  mercy  "  (E.V.  for  hesed),  a  disposition  to  be  bountiful 
and  gracious  beyond  anything  that  can  be  claimed 
from  Him  ;  He  shows  tender  compassion  and  pitiful- 
ness  {raham  rahamim  rahum,  E.V.  " tender  love," 
"compassion,"  "pity,"  "full  of  compassion"),  He 
pities  and  spares  {raham,  hus  hamal),  is  long-suffering 
(erek  appayim).  He  not  only  forgives  {salah,  nasa  V), 
but  is  eager  that  His  people  should  repent  and  be 
forgiven  (Hosea  xi.  8,  9;  Ezek.  xviii.  32,  xxxiii.  11). 

iii.  Justice. — His  justice  is  part  of  His  righteous- 
ness (^ecleq) ;  He  judges  {din,  shaphat)  righteously 
between  man  and  man,  assigning  to  each  his  due,  his 
"  judgment  "  {mishpat).  What  is  thus  due  is  deter- 
mined by  the  fact  that  Jehovah  is  not  only  righteous 
Himself,  but  requires  righteousness  in  Israel.  Hence 
He  rewards  right  doing,  and  punishes  sin ;  He  is  angry 
with  the  sinner.  Moreover,  He  is  jealous  of  His 
rights,  and  counts  it  sin  that  Israel  confounds  Him 
with  other  gods,  and  worships  other  gods  in  addition 
to  or  instead  of  Himself. 

iv.  Glory  (kabod)  ;  Majesty  (gaon)  ;  Sanctity 
(qodesh);  cf.  §  17. — These  attributes  serve  to  express 
His  supernatural  power,  splendour,  and  exaltation^ 
which  are,  on  the  one  hand,  part  of  the  manifestation 
of  Jehovah  to  Israel;  and  yet,  on  the  other  hand, 
tend  to  forbid  any  close  or  constant  fellowship  of 
Israel  with  Jehovah. 

v.  The  Name. — The  sum  of  the  divine  attributes 
of  Jehovah  and  of  what  is  known  of  His  will  and 
working  make  up  the  divine  name,  or  revealed 
character  and  purpose  of  God. 


JEHOVAH  AS  THE   GOD   OF  ISRAEL    105 

16.  Jehovah's  Revelation  of  Himself,  i.  Theo- 
piianies. — Jehovah  Himself  is  not  immediately  seen 
by  men,  though,  like  Isaiah  (vi.)  and  Ezekiel  (i.),  they 
may  have  visions  of  Him ;  or,  like  Moses  (Exod. 
xxiv.),  may  behold  some  manifestation  of  His  pre- 
sence. The  statement  that  Moses  and  the  elders  "  saw 
the  God  of  Israel  "  is  apparently  qualified  by  the  fact 
that  no  further  account  is  given  of  what  they  saw 
than  that  they  saw  the  pavement  under  His  feet. 
Jehovah,  however,  constantly  speaks  directly  to  men. 
As  a  rule,  He  is  seen  and  heard  by  representatives  of 
Israel. 

ii.  The  Supernatural  Organs  of  Revelation. — 
(«)  The  Spirit  (ruah).  Jehovah  makes  known  His 
will  to  men  by  His  Spirit,  and  by  His  Spirit  they  are 
impelled  to  fulfil  His  purposes,  and  are  endowed  with 
necessary  strength  and  wisdom.  The  warrior  is  in- 
spired to  fight  (Judg.  vi.  34) ;  the  husbandman  to 
cultivate  the  soil  (Isa.  xxviii.  23-29) ;  the  artisan 
to  exercise  his  handicraft  (Exod.  xxxi.  3) ;  the  priest 
and  prophet  to  announce  the  divine  will  (2  Chron. 
xv.  1),  and  the  king  to  govern  (1  Sam.  xvi.  13). 

(b)  The  Word. — The  instrument  of  the  divine 
working  in  Creation  and  Providence  is  also  spoken  of 
as  "  the  Word,"  and  the  same  idea  is  implied  when 
God  speaks  or  commands,  and  His  purposes  are 
forthwith  accomplished  (Gen.  i. ;  Isa.  xlviii.  13; 
Psalm  xxxiii.  6,  9,  cxlvii.  18,  19,  cxlviii.  5).  The 
"  Word  of  Jehovah  "  is  constantly  said  to  come  to  the 
prophets  (Jer.  i.  2,  etc.  Cf.  the  references  to  God's 
voice  in  Dent.  iv.  12;  1  Sam.  iii.  4;  1  Kings 
xix.    11,  ff.).     The   later  developments  of  the  usage 


106  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

of  the  term  "Word"  in  the  Apocrypha,  Philo,  etc., 
connect  it  with  the  Logos  doctrine  of  St.  John. 
Another  line  of  connection  is  indicated  by  the  later 
Jewish  doctrine  of  the  "  Word "  in  the  Targums, 
Talmud,  etc. 

(c)  Wisdom  (hokma). — The  wisdom  of  God  would 
naturally  be  thought  of  as  primarily  an  attribute  of 
the  divine  nature,  guiding  His  Spirit  and  shaping  His 
Word.  From  being  a  divine  attribute,  it  becomes  a 
gift  from  God  to  man — e.g.,  Solomon,  1  Kings  iii.  28. 
But  in  Proverbs  and  Job  the  doctrine  of  wisdom 
takes  special  forms.  As  against  the  conception  of 
Jehovah  consulting  with  the  angels — the  host  of 
heaven  (1  Kings  xxii.  19,  20),  the  seraphim  (Isa.  vi.), 
the  sons  of  God  (Job  i.  6,  ii.  1);  Prov.  viii.  22-31 
depicts  wisdom  as  the  eldest  son  and  most  ancient 
possession  of  Jehovah,  His  associate  and  master- 
workman  (30  R.  V.)  in  creation.  Moreover,  wisdom 
is  the  source  of  all  honourable  human  activity  and 
true  prosperity  (Prov.  viii.  14-18).  In  Job  xxviii. 
wisdom  is  a  mystery,  unfathomable  by  man,  and  is 
even  depicted  as  a  matter  which  God  investigates, 
discovers,  and  then  reveals  : 

Whence  then  cometh  wisdom  ?  .   .  . 

It  is  hid  from  the  eyes  of  all  living,  .  .  . 

Destruction  and  death  say 

We  have  heard  a  rumour  thereof  with  our  ears, 

God  understandeth  the  way  thereof, 

He  knoweth  the  place  thereof, 

He  looketh  to  the  ends  of  the  earth, 

He  seeth  under  the  whole  heaven,  .   .  . 

Then  did  He  see  and  declare  it, 


JEHOVAH  AS  THE   GOD    OF  ISRAEL    107 

He  established  it,  yea,  and  searched  it  out, 

And  unto  man  He  said : 

Eehold  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  that  is  wisdom, 

And  to  depart  from  evil  is  understanding. 

(20-28). 
Here  and  elsewhere  wisdom  is  parallel  to,  and  partly 
synonymous  with,  understanding  {Una). 

There  is  an  obvious  connection  between  the  passages 
in  Job  and  Proverbs.  And  this  connection  emphasises 
the  contrast  between  the  abstract  quality  or  force  in 
Job — which  is  depicted  almost  as  independent  of  God 
and  needing  to  be  sought  and  found  by  Him — and 
the  free  personification  of  Proverbs.  The  later 
development  of  the  doctrine  of  wisdom  in  Eccle- 
siasticus  and  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon  is  rather  on  the 
lines  of  Proverbs.  (Of.,  in  N.  T.,  Matt,  xi.  19; 
Luke  vii.  35,  xi.  49.) 

(d)  The  Angels. — The  divine  activity  is  not  only 
spoken  of  as  exercised  directly  and  through  the  Spirit, 
Word,  and  Wisdom,  but  also  through  subordinate 
supernatural  beings,  by  whom  He  is  surrounded, 
as  by  a  heavenly  court,  variously  described  as  the 
host  of  Heaven,  the  sons  of  God,  the  cherubim, 
the  seraphim,  and  more  generally  as  angels 
(Malakhim — messengers).  Nothing  is  said  as  to  the 
origin  of  these  beings,  and  attention  is  directed  to 
their  functions  rather  than  to  their  nature. 

The  Host  of  Heaven  form  the  council  of  Jehovah 
in  1  Kings  xxii.  19,  and  his  Hosts  are  spoken  of  in 
Psalm  ciii.  21.     (Of.  Dan.  vii.  10.) 

Sons  of  God. — A  similar  position  is  occupied  in 
Job  i.   6,  ii.   1   by  the  sons  of   God   (Bne    Elohim), 


108  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

cf.  xxxviii.  7.  The  term  is  parallel  to  "  sons  of  the 
Prophets,"  and  denotes  subordinates  owning  some 
community  or  similarity  of  nature  and  function  to 
their  superior  (cf.  Elohim,  Psalm  viii.  5). 

The  Angel  of  Jehovah,  The  Angel  of  Elohim. — In  the 
older  documents  attention  is  concentrated  upon  one 
special,  pre-eminent  angel,  called  the  angel  of  Jehovah, 
or  of  Elohim.  In  the  same  passages  He  is  at  one  time 
identified  with  Jehovah,  and  at  another  distinguished 
from  Him— e.g.,  cf.  Judg.  vi.  11,  12,  20,  21  with  14, 
16,  23;  and  xiii.  15-21,  with  22,  23.  The  angel  of 
Jehovah  is,  therefore,  almost  rather  a  theophany  or 
divine  manifestation,  than  a  messenger.  He  seems 
to  be  represented  as  the  manifestation  of  that  special 
presence  of  Jehovah  with  Israel,  which  was  symbolised 
by  the  ark.* 

Cherubim. — These  appear  as  guarding  Eden  with 
fiery  swords  (Gen.  iii.  24).  Figures  representing 
cherubim  were  used  to  ornament  the  curtains  of  the 
Tabernacle  (Ex.  xxxvi.  8)  and  the  walls  of  the  Temple 
(1  Kings  vi.  28,  29),  and  to  cover  the  Mercy  Seat 
(Exod.  xxx.,  xxxvii.).  Such  figures  symbolise  the 
attendance  of  the  cherubim  on  Jehovah  in  His 
heavenly  Temple.  In  Ezek.  ix.,  x.  ;  Psalms  xviii.  10, 
Ixxx.  1,  xcix.  1,  the  cherubim  are  spoken  of  as 
supporting  and  carrying  the  throne  of  Jehovah. 
They  are  generally  represented  as  winged  or  flying ; 
Ezekiel's  description  is  exceedingly  elaborate  and 
complicated,  but  it  was  probably  not  intended  to 
apply  to  the  cherubim  generally.  The  etymology 
and  history  of  the  word  are  uncertain. 
*  Smend,  42. 


JEHOVAH  AS   THE   GOD   OF  ISRAEL    109 

Seraphim. — These  are  only  mentioned  in  Isa.  vi.  1, 
where  they  appear  in  attendance  on  Jehovah.  The 
word  elsewhere  (Num.  xxi.  8  ;  Isa.  xiv.  29,  xxx.  6) 
means  a  fiery  serpent. 

Angels  generally,  and  individual  Angels. — With 
slight  exceptions  (Gen.  xix.  1,  xxxii.  1  ;  1  Kings  xiii. 
18)  the  references  to  angels  in  the  earlier  literature 
are  confined  to  the  angel  of  Jehovah,  or  of  Elohim. 
The  "an  angel  of  Jehovah"  in  A.V.  of  various  passages 
should  be  corrected  to  "  the  angel,"  as  E.  V.  Marg. 
Angels  generally  are  mentioned  in  Job  iv.  18  ;  Psalm 
xci.  11,  etc.  In  Zech.  two  or  three  angels,  including 
the  angel  of  Jehovah,  communicate  and  interpret 
the  divine  message  to  the  prophet.  But  in  Daniel, 
angels  —  other  than  the  angel  of  Jehovah  —  are 
mentioned  by  name,  Gabriel  (viii.  16,  ix.  21),  Michael 
(x.  13,  etc.).  Michael  is  "  the  prince  "  or  guardian 
angel  of  Israel,  and  fights  with  angelic  allies  against 
the  "  princes "  or  guardian  angels  of  the  nations 
hostile  to  Israel  (x.  20,  21,  xii.  1).  The  doctrine  of 
the  angels  was  greatly  elaborated  by  later  Judaism, 
from  w^hich  we  learn  the  names  of  numerous  members 
of  the  angelic  hierarchy. 

Satan,  Adversary,  first  appears  as  one  of  the  Bne 
Elohim  in  Job,  and  may  be  compared  with  the  lying 
spirit  in  1  Kings  xxii.  22.  He  is  thus  subordinate  to 
Jehovah,  and  even  in  a  sense  one  of  His  ministering 
angels,  working  with  His  permission,  and  even  as  His 
agent.  In  Zech.  hi.  1,  2  (cf.  Psalm  cix.  6)  he  appears 
as  the  accuser  of  Joshua  the  High  Priest  ;  his  ac- 
cusations are  not  refuted,  but  he  is  rebuked  for 
wishing  to  hinder  the  free  operation  of  divine  grace 


110  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

and  mercy.  1  Chron.  xxi.  1  substitutes  Satan  for 
Jehovah  (2  Sam.  xxi  v.  1)  as  the  author  of  the 
temptation  to  David  to  number  Israel.  0.  T.  does 
not  identify  Satan  with  the  serpent  who  tempted  Eve. 
Devils. — 0.  T.  has  hardly  any  references  to  evil 
angels  other  than  Satan.  Various  objects  of  popular 
superstition  are  mentioned ;  he-goats,  It.  V.,  or  satyrs 
R.V.  Marg.  (Lev.  xvii.  7 ;  2  Chron.  xi.  15),  seirim, 
demons — false  gods  (Deut.  xxxii.  17  ;  Psalm  cvi.  37), 
shedim.  But  these  passages  do  not  seem  to  sanction 
any  belief  in  the  real  existence  of  such  beings.  The 
"  evil  angels,"  malakhe  raim  (cf .  Psalm  lxxviii.  49)  are 
not  to  be  distinguished  from  the  ordinary  angels ; 
they  are  not  evil  in  nature,  but  inflict  evil — i.e., 
punishment  upon  man. 

hi.  Transcendentalism. — To  thus  refer  the  divine 
utterance  and  activity  to  intermediate  beings  and 
qualities,  instead  of  immediately  to  God  Himself,  serves 
to  emphasise  the  solitary  and  ineffable  majesty  of  the 
Most  High.  It  also  tended,  however,  to  obscure  the 
divine  immanence  and  the  possibility  of  direct  fellow- 
ship between  God  and  man.  It  belongs  chiefly  to  the 
last  period  of  O.T.  Revelation,  when  the  Jews  had 
become  fully  conscious  that  Jehovah  ruled,  not  only 
Israel,  but  all  nations  and  the  whole  universe,  so 
that  the  growing  sense  of  the  power  and  majesty  of 
Jehovah  seemed  to  set  Him  alone,  aloof,  and  apart 
from  man. 

iv.    FoRESHADOWINGS      OF      THE      DOCTRINE     OF     THE 

Trinity.  —  0.  T.  use  of  the  terms  word,  spirit, 
wisdom,  etc.,  is  originally  anthropomorphic;  the 
action  and  life  of  God  are  described  and  illustrated  in 


JEHOVAH  AS  THE   GOD   OF  ISRAEL    111 

terms  of  the  faculties  and  actions  of  men.  Even 
when  the  Word,  etc,  are  spoken  of  as  if  they  possessed 
a  certain  independence,  and  could  stand  in  a  kind  of 
personal  relation  to  God,  such  language  still  follows 
the  analogy  of  phrases  in  which  a  man  is  said  "  to 
commune  with  his  own  heart."  0.  T.,  however,  shows 
a  predilection  for  such  language,  and  develops  the 
usage  to  an  extent  which  indicates  that  to  define  the 
Godhead  as  a  single  personality  does  not  satisfy 
the  data  of  revelation.  This  O.  T.  usage  found  its 
natural  issue  in  the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 
But  that  doctrine  is  still  more  clearly  foreshadowed 
in  the  peculiar  position  assigned  by  O.  T.  to  the 
angel  of  Jehovah,  as  a  supernatural  being  who  is  at 
one  and  the  same  time  virtually  identical  with 
Jehovah,  and  yet  capable  of  personal  relations  with 
Him. 

v.  Eevelation  in  Nature  and  History. — As 
Jehovah  is  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  Universe,  all 
nature  is  a  revelation.  This  is  recognised  in  such 
passages  as  Psalm  xix.  1-6  : 

"  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God, 
The  firmament  showeth  his  handy  work." 
Of.   Psalm,   viii.   3.     The  same  idea  underlies  God's 
answer  to  Job  in  Job  xxxviii.-xli. 

Similarly,  God's  moral  government  of  the  world  by 
His  Providence  implies  that  the  courses  and  events 
of  history  are  a  further  revelation.  This  is  re- 
cognised by  the  presence  of  the  historical  books  in 
0.  T.,  and  by  the  constant  appeal  of  the  other  books 
to  Jehovah's  manifestation  of  Himself  in  history.  Note 
especially  Psalms  lxxviii.,    cv.-cvii.,   which   celebrate 


112  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

God's  dealings  with  Israel.  While  0.  T.  chiefly  dwells 
on  the  revelation  given  in  the  history  of  Israel,  yet 
it  also  recognises  that  such  a  revelation  is  to  be 
found  in  all  history.  This  would  necessarily  be  the 
case  with  all  nations  in  any  way  connected  with 
Israel,  but  it  is  also  implied  that  God's  hand  may  be 
traced  in  the  history  of  Gentile  nations  considered 
in  themselves.  For  instance,  Amos  ix.  7  expressly 
places  the  emigration  of  the  Philistines  from  Caphtor 
and  the  Syrians  from  Kir  on  a  level  with  the  Exodus 
from  Egypt. 

Moreover  man,  the  meeting  point  of  nature  and 
history,  is  made  in  the  image  and  likeness  of  God 
(Gen.  i.  26),  and  is  given  dominion  over  all  beneath  him. 
Hence  human  life,  both  in  its  relation  to  nature,  and 
in  individuals,  and  societies,  and  their  mutual  dealings, 
must  constitute  in  some  way  a  revelation. 

vi.  Human  Agents  of  Revelation,  Inspiration  ; 
cf_  §  4?  i. — We  have  already  seen  that  the  direct  and 
immediate  revelation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  is  almost 
always  through  the  representatives  of  the  nation; 
this  principle  also  holds  good  of  the  revelation  made 
through  supernatural  agents,  and  through  nature 
and  history. 

(a)  The  Nation.  —  When  Israel  is  faithful,  its 
national  life  is  a  revelation  of  God's  will  and  character ; 
so  also  is  the  punishment  of  Israel's  disobedience. 
Similarly  the  individual  Israelite  of  every  class — king, 
prophet,  priest,  farmer,  artisan — in  some  measure 
reveals  Jehovah  if  he  yields  to  the  divine  in- 
spiration. 

(b)  The  King. — More  especially  the  king  or  judge, 


JEHOVAH  AS   THE   GOD    OF  ISRAEL    113 

as  the  agent  through  whom  Jehovah  bestows  the 
blessings  of  social  order  and  victory  over  enemies, 
represents  Jehovah  to  Israel. 

(c)  TJie  Prophet. — The  Prophetic  order,  however, 
was  pre-eminently  the  channel  of  divine  revelation. 
The  special  function  of  the  prophet  was  to  represent 
Jehovah — to  be  His  messenger  to  Israel.  The  regular 
ritual  was  fixed  and  might  be  learned  from  the  priests ; 
but  Jehovah  had  commands  and  counsel  for  all  the 
unforeseen  contingencies  of  national  and  individual 
life.  Jehovah's  organ  for  such  commands  and  counsel 
was  the  prophet.  Accordingly  all  the  new  departures 
of  national  life  are  authorised  by  prophets ;  therefore 
Abraham  (Gen.  xx.  7),  Moses  (Deut.  xviii.  18), 
Samuel,  David  (Acts  ii.  30),  are  all  recognised  as 
prophets.  Ahijah  announces  the  division  of  Israel 
into  two  kingdoms  (1  Kings  xi.  29),  and  the  fall  of 
Jeroboam's  dynasty  (xiv.  7,  ff.),  and  Elijah,  the  over- 
throw of  the  house  of  Omri  (xxi.  22).  The  captivity 
and  return  are  announced  by  the  later  prophets. 
Similarly  the  great  spiritual  revelations  are  contained 
in  the  prophetical  books ;  a  recognition  of  this  pro- 
phetic office  led  to  the  ascription  of  the  Pentateuch 
to  Moses,  and  of  the  historical  books,  Joshua — Kings, 
to  the  prophets. 

(d)  The  Priest. — In  the  case  of  the  Priests  the 
representation  of  Jehovah  to  Israel  was  not  their 
most  characteristic  function  \  nevertheless,  they  were 
His  representatives,  as  conveying  to  the  people,  in 
their  blessing,  the  assurance  of  the  divine  favour 
and  acceptance  (ISTum.  vi.  22-27),  and  as  teaching 
Jehovah's   will    by   communicating  and  interpreting 

8 


114  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

the  Torah  (Deut.  xxxiii.  10).  In  earlier  times  priestly 
functions  seem  to  have  been  wider  and  to  have  .virtu- 
ally included  those  of  the  later  prophets  ;  priests  not 
only  laid  down  the  law  as  to  conduct  and  worship, 
but  also  gave  counsel  in  emergencies,  by  Urim  and 
Thummim,  and  otherwise  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  6,  xxx.  8). 
But  the  priest,  as  priest,  never  conveys  Jehovah's 
commands  for  any  great  new  departure,  nor  does  he 
communicate  any  important  new  revelation. 

vii.  Methods  of  Revelation. —  Perhaps  the  best 
Hebrew  equivalent,  in  the  older  literature,  for  our 
term  "revelation," would  be  Torah  (E.V.,  "  Law,"  R.V. 
Mg.,  "  instruction  ").  Torah  is  in  the  first  instance 
a  revelation  of  the  divine  will,  on  some  special  point 
made  through  a  priest  or  prophet.  This  communi- 
cation of  the  divine  will  is  made  in  ancient  times  by 
lot  (Urim  and  Thummim,  and  Ephod  were  probably 
forms  of  lot)— e.g.,  in  the  cases  of  Achan  (Josh, 
vii.  14),  .Saul  (1  Sam.  x.  21),  Saul  and  Jonathan 
(xiv.  41).  The  recourse  to  lots  is  not  sanctioned  by  the 
prophets  or  the  later  legislation.  Revelations  were 
also  made  by  dreams  in  the  night ;  by  visions — i.e., 
impressions  made  upon  the  mind  during  an  abnormal 
mental  condition  of  trance  or  ecstasy  ;  by  types — i.e., 
a  divine  use  of  a  natural  object  as  an  image  or  parable 
of  the  divine  message.  At  times  it  is  said  that  a 
voice  came  to  the  prophet  (1  Kings  xix.).  Sometimes 
the  revelation  is  received  through  an  angel,  especially 
in  the  books  of  Zechariah  and  Daniel,  where,  how- 
ever, the  chief  function  of  the  angels  is  to  interpret 
visions  seen  by  the  prophets.  For  the  most  part, 
however,  it  is  simply  said  that  Jehovah  spoke  to  the 


JEHOVAH  AS  THE  GOD   OF  ISRAEL    115 

prophet,  or  that  the  word  of  Jehovah  came  to  the 
prophet. 

0.  T.  does  not  tell  us  how  the  prophets  were  assured 
of  the  divine  origin  of  the  dreams,  visions,  voices,  or 
word  of  Jehovah.  Probably  the  trance  or  ecstasy 
was  regarded  as  a  token  of  inspiration ;  but  the 
almost  entire  absence  of  any  appeal  to  external  marks 
of  inspiration  indicates  that  the  prophetic  assurance 
rested  chiefly  upon  an  inner  spiritual  sense  of  fellow- 
ship with  Jehovah. 

Similarly  the  0.  T.  lays  down  no  clear  rules  by 
which  the  people  might  be  assured  of  a  prophet's 
inspiration,  though  numerous  cases  occur  in  which 
the  true  prophets  were  contradicted  by  others  who 
also  claimed  to  speak  in  the  name  of  Jehovah — e.g., 
Micaiah  ben-Imlah  by  Ahab's  prophets  (1  Kings  xxii.), 
Jeremiah  by  Hananiah  ( Jer.  xxviii.).  Jeremiah  xxviii. 
(8,  9)  indeed  suggests  that  a  prophecy  of  evil  is  more 
likely  to  be  true  than  prophecy  of  good;  but  this 
canon  is  obviously  of  special  and  limited  application. 
Again  Deut.  xviii.  21,  22,  makes  fulfilled  predic- 
tion the  credentials  of  a  true  prophet ;  but  this  test 
might  often  be  valid,  and  yet,  unless  used  with  much 
discrimination,  prove  altogether  misleading.  More- 
over Elijah  on  Carmel  (1  Kings  xviii.),  and  Isaiah, 
with  Ahaz  (vii.  11)  and  Hezekiah  (xxxviii.  7),  offer 
signs  as  proofs  of  their  divine  mission.  But  for  the 
most  part,  the  impression  given  by  the  0.  T.  is  that  a 
prophet's  most  convincing  credentials  were  the  self- 
verifying  effects  his  words  produced  on  the  hearts  and 
consciences  of  his  hearers. 

vii.  Record  of  Revelation.     Canon.     Cf.  §  5,  xi, 


116  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

— The  divine  acts  and  utterances  which  constitute 
0.  T.  revelation  were,  in  the  first  instance,  given  to 
individuals,  or  to  the  nation  through  individuals, 
in  reference  to  the  special  circumstances  of  various 
periods  and  crises.  Sometimes  a  prophet,  as  in  Jer. 
xxxvi.,  might  communicate  his  message  in  writing ; 
but  the  writing  was  rather  a  letter  or  written  address, 
than  an  attempt  after  literary  permanence — the 
revelation  was  so  far  complete  when  the  message 
had  reached  the  ears  or  eyes  for  which  it  was  first 
intended. 

But  these  messages  were  soon  felt  to  embody 
permanent  truth ;  and  God's  dealings  with  Israel 
were  seen  to  have  a  permanent  significance.  Hence, 
the  prophets  or  their  disciples  committed  the  inspired 
words  to  writing,  and  histories  of  Israel  began.  The 
preservation  of  these  records  shows  that  they  were 
naturally  cherished  with  affection  and  reverence ; 
otherwise  0.  T.  lays  down  no  doctrine  of  prophetic 
and  historic  Scripture. 

The  legislation  stands  on  a  different  footing.  Each 
ordinance  was  originally  a  divine  torah  addressed  to 
some  special  need.  Then  as  each  prophecy  embodied 
a  permanent  principle,  so  each  legal  decision  furnished 
a  precedent.  Customary  law  might  long  remain  oral, 
but  convenience  ultimately  caused  its  reduction  to 
writing.  Moreover,  the  authority  of  a  legal  code 
needed  to  be  definitely  accepted  and  established. 
Thus  the  successive  editions  of  the  Mosaic  torah 
obtained  canonical  authority  by  means  of  solemn 
covenants ;  Deuteronomy  under  Josiah  (2  Kings 
xxiii.),  the  Levitical  law  under  Nehemiah  (x.). 


JEHOVAH   AS    THE   GOD    OF  ISRAEL    117 

The  doctrine  of  our  present  O.  T.  canon  is  neces- 
sarily not  a  part  of  0.  T.  theology,  for  the  formation 
of  a  canon  implies  that  the  revelation  is  closed  and 
complete.  Moreover,  the  limits  of  the  O.  T.  canon 
amongst  the  Jews  were  still  under  discussion  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Christian  era ;  and  the  Christian 
Church  is  still  hopelessly  divided  as  to  the  0.  T. 
canon,  the  Protestant  Churches  rejecting  a  number 
of  books  received  by  the  remainder  of  Western 
Christendom.  Thus  the  attempts  to  fix  this  canon 
are  far  too  late  to  be  received  as  part  of  the  revela- 
tion given  by  God  in  O.  T. 

ix.  The  Scope  of  Revelation.  —Nevertheless,  in 
the  present  work,  we  assume  the  canon  of  the 
Protestant  Churches,  which,  at  any  rate,  has  the 
advantage  of  only  including  those  books  which  are 
universally  accepted.  Even  within  these  limits  God's 
revelation  to  Israel  is  seen  to  be  of  immense  variety 
and  comprehensiveness.  God  reveals,  through  a  long 
series  of  centuries,  His  will  and  purpose  for  the  past, 
present,  and  future,  and  also  for  all  classes  of  Israelites 
and  all  circumstances  and  occasions  of  life. 

While  N.  T.  is  the  literature  of  a  single  unique 
period,  0.  T.  belongs  to  a  long  succession  of  critical 
epochs;  N.  T.  is  the  account  of  a  new  faith  in  its 
first  stages  ;  O.  T.  enables  us  to  trace  religious  ideas 
through  centuries  of  growth.  N.  T.  concentrates 
attention  on  the  personal  religious  life,  and  all  its 
heroes  are  religious  teachers.  0.  T.  sets  forth  the 
will  and  purpose  of  God  as  regards  the  nation;  its 
heroes  are  not  merely  prophets  and  priests :  they  are 
patriarchs,    shepherds,    kings,    like    Abraham,    Job, 


118  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

David,  and  Saul ;  queens  like  Esther ;  slaves  and 
statesmen,  like  Joseph  and  Nehemiah  ;  simple  women, 
like  Ruth  and  Naomi.  Divine  guidance  and  grace 
are  sought  and  given  as  to  the  choice  of  a  home  or 
a  wife,  the  birth  of  children,  the  gathering  and 
spending  of  worldly  gear,  the  organisation  and  govern- 
ment of  the  state  in  its  home  and  foreign  politics  ;  in 
short,  all  the  varied  interests  of  life  are  depicted  as 
consecrated  and  inspired. 

The  contents  of  the  canon  further  illustrate  this 
comprehensiveness.  O.  T.  is  not  the  text-book  of  a 
church,  but  the  literature  of  a  nation,  its  legal  codes, 
its  maxims  of  worldly  wisdom,  its  poems  and  romances, 
its  histories,  its  prayers  and  hymns  and  sermons,  even 
its  scepticism.  Indeed,  as  we  have  seen,  even  the 
polemics  of  opposing  theological  schools  lie  side  by 
side  in  0.  T.  When  the  Holy  Spirit  constrained  a 
half  unconscious  Church  to  group  all  these  into  one 
sacred  volume,  He  proclaimed  emphatically  that  no 
earnest  and  honest  movement  of  human  thought  or 
life  was  common  or  unclean. 

This  variety  of  Jehovah's  manifestation  of  Himself 
to  Israel  suggests  the  exact  adaptation  of  the  divine 
messages  to  various  needs  and  changing  circumstances. 
Threats  and  promises  are  never  arbitrary ;  the  execu- 
tion of  a  threat  may  be  averted  by  penitence  (cf.  also 
the  apparently  unconditional  prediction  of  the  ruin 
of  Nineveh  in  Jonah  iii.  4,  and  God's  repentance  in 
iii.  10),  and  the  fulfilment  of  a  promise  may  be 
forfeited  by  sin.  Every  advance  in  human  conduct 
and  condition  involved  a  fuller  and  more  blessed 
revelation  of  God.     Thus  in  attempting  to  appreciate 


JEHOVAH  AS  THE  GOD   OF  ISRAEL    119 

O.  T.  teaching  as  to  the  divine  nature,  we  cannot 
afford  to  lay  undue  stress  even  on  its  most  important 
formula?  and  most  sublime  passages;  only  when  we 
try  to  grasp  something  of  the  marvellous  variety  and 
comprehensiveness  of  0.  T.  do  we  begin  to  under- 
stand what  is  meant  by  M  Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel." 


CHAPTER   V 

ISRAEL   AS   THE  PEOPLE  OF  JEHOVAH 


CHAPTER   V 

ISRAEL    AS    THE    PEOPLE    OF    JEHOVAH 

17.  Sanctity. — The  term  used  to  denote  acts, 
persons,  places,  times,  specially  devoted  to  Jehovah 
and  His  worship,  is  qadosh  (E.V.,  "  holy  ").  So  qodesh 
(E.  V.,  "  holiness  ")  is  used  of  the  quality  of  being  thus 
devoted,  and  various  verbal  forms  of  qdsh  are  used 
in  a  corresponding  sense.  The  connotation  of  the 
modern  word  "holy"  is,  as  a  rule,  so  different  from 
that  of  qadosh,  that  it  is  misleading  to  use  "  holy  "  as 
its  regular  equivalent.  Acts,  etc.,  specially  connected 
with  worship  or  with  man's  relation  to  God  are  often 
called  "  religious"  in  modern  English,  and  this  would 
often  be  a  fair  equivalent  of  qadosh ;  but  perhaps  the 
word  whose  usage  most  closely  corresponds  to  qadosh 
is  "sacred."  Hence,  wherever  possible,  we  shall 
represent  qadosh,  by  "sacred." 

But  qadosh  is  also  applied  to  Jehovah  as  the  object 
of  religious  worship  (Isa.  vi.  3),  He  is  Himself  styled 
qadosh  ;  in  this  connection  the  term  may  be  rendered 
"  divine  "*  as  in  our  "  divine  being,"  "  divine  service." 

Note. — As,  however,  the  root  qdsh  is  not  peculiar 

to  Hebrew,  but  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "  religious," 

"sacred,"   by  the  Semitic  peoples  generally,  certain 

*  Skinner's  Ezekiel,  414. 
123 


124  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

Hebrew  usages  of  the  root  are  survivals  of  ancient 
Semitic  heathenism,  and  have  no  connection  with 
revealed  religion.  For  instance  qedesha  is  used  for 
prostitute,  because  such  persons  were  sacred  in  heathen 
religion. 

18.  Sacred  Places,  i.  The  Land  of  Israel. — 
Though  in  the  earlier  history  Jehovah  is  specially 
connected  with  Horeb  (Exod.  iii.  1  •  Deut.  i.  6)  and 
Sinai  (Exod.  xix;  Deut.  xxxiii.  2;  Judg.  v.  5  ;  Psalm 
lxviii.  8,  17);  yet  for  the  most  part  Palestine  was 
specially  the  possession  of  Jehovah,  the  place  where 
He  dwelt  and  manifested  Himself  to  His  worshippers. 
Palestine  is  His  inheritance  (1  Sam.  xxvi.  19),  His 
house  (Hosea  viii.  1,  ix.  15),  His  vineyard  (Isa. 
i.-v.).  Possibly  on  account  of  the  early  loss  of  the 
territory  east  of  the  Jordan,  the  sacred  land  is  limited 
in  Ezek.  xlvii.  18;  Josh.  xxii.  19,  to  the  western 
territory.  Similarly,  in  later  times,  a  special  sanctity 
attached  to  Judsea  in  comparison  with  Galilee  and, 
a  fortiori,  Samaria. 

Jehovah's  possession  of  Palestine  does  not,  of  course, 
originate  with  its  occupation  by  Israel.  Israel  did 
not  conquer  Canaan  for  Jehovah ;  but  Canaan  was 
His  possession,  which  He  gave  to  His  people. 

ii.  Sacred  Character  of  Ownership  of  Land. 
{Doctrine  of  Property). — Not  only  was  the  whole  land 
Jehovah's  gift  to  the  nation,  but  also  the  inheritance 
of  each  tribe,  clan,  and  family  was  a  direct  gift  from 
Jehovah ;  hence  the  division  by  lot  in  Joshua. 
These  inheritances  were  therefore  inalienable.  Hence 
the  law  of  Jubilee  (Lev.  xxv.,  xxvi.)  deprives  the 
owner  of  land  of  the  right  of  free  sale.     He  can  only 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      125 

dispose  of  a  temporary  usufruct,  and  the  reversion  is 
secured  to  the  family.  Similarly  it  is  provided  that 
land  shall  not  pass  from  one  tribe  to  another  by  a 
mixed  marriage  (Num.  xxvi.,  xxvii.,  xxxvi.  ;  Josh, 
xvii.  3).  The  collective  rights  of  the  clan  in  the 
land  are  further  asserted  by  charging  it  with  certain 
dues  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10) ;  and 
the  rights  of  Jehovah  are  recognised  in  the  provision 
made  for  the  priesthood.  The  proper  treatment  of 
the  soil,  by  leaving  it  fallow  in  the  sabbatical  year, 
and  the  year  of  Jubilee,  is  also  constituted  a  religious 
duty. 

As,  after  the  conquest,  land  was  the  most  im- 
portant and  permanent  species  of  property,  the  land 
laws  constitute  a  doctrine  of  property,  as  the  gift  of 
Jehovah,  charged  with  the  relief  of  the  needy  and 
the  maintenance  of  all  good  works.  Moreover,  the 
principle  is  implied  that  the  holder  of  property  is  to 
be  careful  of  the  rights  and  needs  of  succeeding 
generations.  Both  the  prophets  and  the  legislative 
codes  try  to  secure  that  every  free  Israelite  family,  as 
a  unit  of  the  sacred  nation,  shall  have  its  share  in 
the  sacred  land. 

iii.  The  Ancient  Sanctuaries  or  High  Places. — 
The  sanctity  of  Palestine,  as  the  place  where  Jehovah 
specially  manifested  Himself  to  Israel,  is  shown  in 
the  Pentateuch  and  Joshua  by  the  theophanies  at 
Beersheba  (Gen.  xlvi.  1),  Bethel  (Gen.  xxviii.  19, 
xxxv.  14,  15)  ;  Gerar  (xx.  2,  xxvi.  2) ;  Gilgal  (Josh, 
v.  13) ;  Mamre  (Gen.  xviii.  1) ;  Moriah  (xxii.  2, 
etc.),  within  the  limits  of  Palestine.  Although  the 
patriarchal     history    narrates     theophanies     outside 


126  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

Palestine,  it  does  not  specially  connect  them  with 
any  definite  locality ;  when  God  appears  to  Jacob  in 
Padan-Aram  He  styles  Himself  the  God  of  Bethel 
(Gen.  xxxi.  13). 

The  Palestinian  scenes  of  these  theophanies  are 
found,  for  the  most  part,  amongst  the  "  high  places," 
which  are  referred  to  in  Samuel,  Kings,  and  the 
Prophets  as  the  seats  of  popular  worship.  As  their 
connection,  in  many  cases,  with  the  patriarchal 
history  implies,  they  were  sanctuaries  of  Jehovah, 
so  that  Solomon  sacrificed  at  Gibeon,  because  it 
was  "  the  great  high  place  "  (1  Kings  iii.  4).  The 
worship,  however,  at  these  sanctuaries  became  corrupt ; 
Jehovah  was  worshipped  under  the  form  of  idols — 
e.g.,  the  calves  at  Bethel  and  Dan — and  in  combina- 
tion with  other  deities.  Hence,  the  prophets  of  the 
eighth  century  denounce  the  high  places ;  they 
were  suppressed  by  Hezekiah  and  Josiah,  and  never 
restored  after  the  Return. 

iv.  Cities  of  Refuge.  Num.  xxxv. ;  Deut.  xix ; 
Josh.  xx. — Of  the  six  cities  of  refuge,  Kedesh- 
Naphtali  and  Hebron  were  certainly  ancient  sanc- 
tuaries, and  probably  all  were  seats  of  important 
high  places,  so  that  the  right  of  asylum  assigned  to 
them,  was  an  ancient  privilege  retained  when  the 
sanctuaries  were  suppressed. 

v.  Tabernacle  and  Temple. — In  view  of  the 
historical  continuity  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the 
Temple  we  may  consider  these  as  a  single  institution, 
which  attained  its  ideal  status  and  full  significance 
in  the  position  accorded  to  the  Temple  at  the  close 
of  the  Monarchy  and  after  the  Captivity.     It  was — 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH     127 

(a)  Unique.  Deut.  xii.  j  Lev.  xvii. — In  this 
advanced  state  of  Jewish  religion,  the  Temple  became, 
not  merely  the  typical  Israelite  sanctuary,  the  only 
one  recognised  as  fully  legitimate,  but  practically  the 
sole  sanctuary  of  Jehovah.  The  synagogues  (see 
below)  stood  on  an  entirely  different  footing ;  and 
the  existence  of  the  Samaritan  Temple  and  the 
Egyptian  Temple  built  by  the  High  Priest  Onias 
never  seriously  affected  the  position  of  the  Temple 
at  Jerusalem.  The  multitude  of  the  high  places 
tended  to  polytheism;  the  "God  of  Bethel"  might 
easily  be  thought  of  as  a  different  deity  from  the 
"  God  of  Beersheba,"  just  as  "  Our  Lady  of  Loretto  " 
is  distinguished  from  "  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes."  But 
the  exclusive  reverence  paid  to  the  Temple  at 
Jerusalem  emphasised  the  Divine  Unity;  the  one 
sanctuary  implied  One  God. 

(6)  Graduated  Sanctity.  Lev.  xvi. ;  Ezek.  xlii.,  xlvi. 
— Though  all  Palestine  was  sacred,  the  presence  of 
the  Temple  and  the  association  with  David  and  his 
dynasty  made  Jerusalem  a  sacred  city — i.e.,  possessing 
a  sanctity  a  degree  higher  than  that  of  the  country 
generally;  and  the  Temple,  again,  possessed  a  still 
higher  degree  of  sanctity.  But  in  the  Temple  itself 
the  different  courts  and  chambers  possessed  a  graduated 
sanctity.  The  courts  were  open  to  the  people,  the 
outer  and  larger  chamber  was  opened  to  the  priests 
for  their  ordinary  ministrations  at  the  golden  candle- 
stick, the  table  of  shew-bread,  and  the  altar  of  incense, 
and  wTas  called  "the  Sacred  Place."  But,  as  in  most 
ancient  Temples,  there  was  a  small  innermost  chamber. 
Here  Jehovah's  presence  was  most  specially  manifested, 


128  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

and  was  symbolised  by  the  presence — and  later  on  by 
the  memory  of  the  presence — of  the  ark,  the  most 
sacred  object  of  Israelite  religion.  This  chamber  was 
called  Qodesh  haq-Qodashim,  "  The  Most  Sacred 
Place"  (E.V.,  "  Holy  of  Holies"),  and  was  entered  by 
the  High  Priest  alone,  and  only  on  one  day  in  the 
year. 

vi.  Synagogues. — After  the  Return,  the  need  for 
local  sanctuaries,  once  supplied  by  the  high  places, 
was  met  by  the  institution  of  synagogues,  where 
God  was  worshipped  by  prayer  and  praise,  without 
sacrifice. 

19.  Sacred  Persons,  i.  The  Nation. — In  Exod. 
xix.  5,  6,  Jehovah  promises  that,  if  Israel  "  will  obey 
My  voice  indeed,  and  keep  My  covenant,  then  ye 
shall  be  a  peculiar  treasure  unto  Me  from  among  all 
peoples  ...  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  a  sacred 
nation" — i.e.,  Israel  was  a  nation  to  whom  Jehovah 
was  manifested,  the  object  of  His  special  Providence, 
the  people  set  apart  to  obe}r  and  worship  Him  in 
that  most  acceptable  way  which  was  made  known  by 
the  prophets  and  the  law.  The  various  terms — 
divine  election,  sovereignty,  fatherhood,  marriage, 
protection,  covenant  (cf  §  14) — which  are  used  to 
express  the  mutual  relation  of  Jehovah  and  Israel, 
all  emphasise  the  sanctity  of  the  chosen  people. 

The  sanctity  of  the  nation  necessarily  included  all 
its  tribes,  clans,  families,  and  individuals,  and  even 
extended  in  some  measure  to  resident  aliens  and 
slaves  of  foreign  birth.  Hence  the  whole  civil  life 
of  the  nation,  on  its  social,  and  especially  on  its 
family  side,  the  mutual  claims  and  duties  of  all  its 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE   OP  JEHOVAH      129 

members,  are  the  subject  of  divine  revelation. 
Civil  law  and  social  custom  are  alike  supported  by 
religious  sanctions,  and  each  man's  life  is  hedged 
about  with  ceremonial  observances  and  regulations  so 
that  it  almost  becomes  a  continuous  ritual. 

ii.  The  Royal  Dynasty  and  the  King. —As 
Jehovah  had  chosen  Israel  out  of  the  nations,  so  He 
chose  David  and  his  house  to  be  the  rulers  of  His 
people.  The  election  of  the  dynasty  implies  the 
principle  of  hereditary  succession. 

The  legislation,  however — in  the  form  in  which 
it  has  been  preserved  for  us — dates  from  the 
Restoration,  when  the  highest  civil  authority  was 
the  representative  of  Persia,  and — apart  from  this 
Persian  governor — -the  High  Priest  was  the  civil,  as 
well  as  the  ecclesiastical,  head  of  the  Jews.  The 
law,  therefore,  has  little  to  say  about  the  king ;  Deut. 
xvii.  14-20,  simply  provides  that  the  king  shall  be 
the  Elect  of  Jehovah  and  an  Israelite,  that  he  shall 
make  a  copy  of  the  law,  study  it  diligently  and 
observe  it  faithfully.  Hence  O.  T.  teaching  with 
regard  to  the  king  is  chiefly  to  be  sought  in  the 
prophetical  and  historical  books.  As  Judges,  Samuel, 
Kings,  and  the  earlier  prophets  do  not  apply  the 
term  "sacred"'  either  to  kings  or  priests,  we  are 
left  to  deduce  the  sanctity  of  the  king  from  his 
functions.  We  may,  however,  note  that  Lev.  iv.  3-1 G 
implies  the  supreme  sanctity  of  the  ancient  king,  by 
transferring  his  title  "  Anointed,"  mashiah,  to  the 
High  Priest. 

The  king  was,  in  a  sense,  sacred  as  the  head  and 
civil  ruler  of  the  sacred  nation.     But   the  king  is 

9 


130  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

sacred,  in  a  more  special  and  technical  sense,  as  the 
religious  head  of  the  nation ;  and  in  this  capacity  he 
partakes  of  the  character  both  of  priest  and  prophet. 

As  Deuteronomy  suggests,  we  find  the  royal 
authority  resting  on  divine  choice,  confirmed  by 
popular  consent.  This  authority  is  supreme — under 
Jehovah — in  all  matters,  civil  and  religious.  The 
movements  and  housing  of  the  ark,  the  building  and 
repair  of  the  Temple,  the  celebration  of  feasts  are 
originated  and  controlled,  not  by  the  priesthood  but 
by  the  kings,  David,  Solomon,  Joash,  Hezekiah,  and 
Josiah.  The  original  founder  of  the  Law  and  the 
other  religious  institutions  of  Israel  is  not  Aaron  the 
Priest,  but  Moses  "  the  king  in  Jeshurun "  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  5),  to  whom  Aaron  is  in  all  things  subordinate. 
In  prophetic  fashion,  the  king  receives  direct  com- 
munications from  Jehovah— e.g.,  Solomon's  dream; 
and,  like  a  priest,  he  sacrifices — e.g.,  David  (2  Sam. 
xxiv.  25),  Solomon  (1  Kings  hi.  4)  ;  offers  public 
prayers — e.g.,  Solomon  (1  Kings  viii.) ;  reads  the  Law 
to  the  people — e.g.,  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  2). 

The  position  of  the  "  prince  "  in  Ezek.  xliv.-xlvi. 
corresponds  in  essential  points  to  that  of  the  actual 
kings  of  Judah.  He  is  supreme  "  in  his  own  sphere," 
and  "  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  ...  his  authority 
is  overshadowed  by  that  of  a  priestly  caste."  *  The 
prince  is  the  religious  representative  of  the  nation  as 
supplying  the  materials  for  public  sacrifice  (xlv.  17), 
and  as  possessing  special  rights  of  access  to  the 
sanctuary  (xliv.  1-3).  At  the  same  time  Ezekiel,  by 
implication,  excludes  the  prince  from  sacrifice  and 
*  Skinner's  EzcHel  U7. 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      131 

oilier  priestly  functions.  The  chronicler's  explanation 
of  Uzziah's  leprosy  as  a  punishment  for  exercising  the 
priestly  function  of  offering  incense  in  the  Temple, 
shows  the  same  tendency.  Otherwise  Chronicles 
depicts  the  kings  as  almost  more  supreme  in  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  than  they  appear  in  Kings. 

Accordingly  the  king  and  the  monarchy  are  re- 
garded as  divine  gifts  to  Israel,  special  tokens  of 
Jehovah's  favour  ;  "  the  shout  of  a  king  "  in  Israel  is 
a  sign  of  the  divine  presence  (Num.  xxiii.  21  ;  cf. 
xxiv.  7).  On  the  other  hand,  the  unfortunate  ex- 
periences of  the  closing  periods  of  both  Israelite 
kingdoms  weakened  for  a  time  the  Jewish  reverence 
for  the  monarchy,  and  an  anti-monarchical  sentiment 
finds  expression  in  1  Sam.  viii.  12  (possibly  referred 
to  in  Hosea  ix.  9),  and  more  moderately  in  Deut. 
xvii.  14-20. 

iii.  Levites  (Num.  i.  8,  18  ;  Ezek.  xliv.  9-14). — 
Oat  of  the  sacred  nation,  the  tribe  of  Levi  are  elect 
of  God,  and  invested  with  a  special  sanctity  to  per- 
form the  less  important  priestly  functions  of  the 
Temple.  Their  service,  as  a  substitution  for  the 
offering  of  the  firstborn  in  sacrifice,  represents  the 
dedication  of  Israel  to  Jehovah. 

•  iv.  Pkiests  (Lev.,  Num.,  Ezek.  xliv.  15,  16). — Out 
of  this  sacred  tribe,  the  clan  of  Aaron — styled  in 
Ezek.  "  the  Levitical  priests,  of  the  house  of  Zadok  " — 
are  invested  with  a  still  higher  sanctity.  They  are 
the  priests  of  Israel,  the  higher  functions  of  worship 
are  their  exclusive  privilege,  and  they  alone  may 
enter  the  Sacred  Place. 

v.  The   High   Priest  (Exod.  xxviii.,  xxix.  ;    Lev. 


132  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

viii.,  ix.). — Finally  a  priestly  dynasty  is  chosen  out  of 
the  sacred  clan.  The  legal  representative  of  this 
sacred  dynasty  is  the  hereditary  head  of  the  priest- 
hood, the  High  Priest.  The  highest  functions  of 
public  worship  are  exclusively  reserved  to  him  and  he 
alone  enters  the  Mo  ^t  Sacred  Place.  Speaking  gener- 
ally, the  principles  of  heredity  and  primogeniture  are 
thus  recognised  for  the  high-priesthood  as  well  as 
for  the  monarchy — e.g.,  Aaron  is  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  surviving  son,  and  similarly  Eleazar  by  his  son 
Phinehas.  In  practice,  however,  this  theory  of  the 
law  only  represents  the  normal  arrangement,  the 
direct  heirs  being  sometimes  set  aside.  Throughout 
the  history  instances  occur  in  which  the  priesthood 
was  transferred  from  one  family  to  another  by  the 
civil  ruler,  acting  with  or  without  divine  sanction 
— e.g.,  the  deposition  of  Abiathar  by  Solomon  (1 
Kings  ii.  26,  27). 

vi.  Graduated  Sanctity. — The  principle  of  gradu- 
ated sanctity  is  first  illustrated  by  the  gradual  election 
of  Israel;  Seth  is  chosen  from  among  the  sons  of 
Adam ;  Noah  from  among  the  Sethites ;  Shem  from 
among  the  sons  of  Noah  ;  Abraham  from  among  the 
the  sons  of  Shem;  Isaac  from  among  the  sons  of 
Abraham  ;  and  finally  Israel  from  among  the  sons  of 
Isaac.  Thus  Israel  is  the  purest  grain  left  after  the 
repeated  sifting  of  the  nations.  But,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  graduation  continues  within  Israel  and 
ascends  through  the  Levites  and  the  house  of  Aaron 
to  its  climax  in  the  supreme  sanctity  of  the  High 
Priest. 

vii.  Representation  of  Israel  to  Jehovah. — We 


ISRAEL  AS    PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      133 

have  seen  above  (§  1G,  vi.)  that  kings  and  priests,  in 
some  measure,  represented  Jehovah  to  Israel.  On 
the  other  hand  the  king  by  his  provision  of  buildings 
and  sacrifices  for  public  worship,  and  in  all  his  publie 
acts  that  looked  Godward,  also  represented  his  people 
before  Jehovah.  But  this  representation  was  more 
peculiarly  the  characteristic  function  of  the  priest. 
The  king  was  obviously  unsuited  to  be  the  ordinary 
mediator  between  Jehovah  and  Israel  in  the  sphere  of 
ritual.  The  constant  observance  of  the  multifarious 
details  of  ancient  ritual  would  have  have  made  far 
too  great  demands  on  his  time.  Moreover,  the  special 
degree  of  sanctity  demanded  from  the  ministrants 
in  sacred  ritual  involved  niceties  of  etiquette,  dress, 
and  diet  incompatible  with  the  exigencies  of  practical 
life.  Accordingly  the  priests,  in  their  various  orders 
of  Levite,  Priests,  and  High  Priests  were  set  apart  to 
represent  Israel  before  Jehovah ;  by  their  pure  descent, 
their  physical  perfection,  their  honourable  marriage, 
their  exceptional  degree  of  ceremonial  cleanness  (Lev. 
xxi.),  they  were  qualified  to  represent  the  nation  in 
the  performance  of  the  most  solemn  ritual,  and,  in 
the  person  of  the  High  Priest,  to  carry  the  con- 
f(  ssions,  prayers,  thanksgivings,  and  offerings  of  the 
people  into  the  Most  Sacred  Place,  which  symbolised 
the  presence  chamber  of  Jehovah. 

viii.  Prophets. — The  prophet,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  is  mainly  Jehovah's  messenger  to  Israel.  His 
divine  commission,  however,  would  naturally  confer  a 
certain  sanctity  ;  and,  indeed,  Elisha  is  called  "  a  holy 
man  of  God "  (2  Kings  iv.  9),  yet  in  the  strictest 
sense,  he   is   not    "  sacred  " — i.e.,  he  has  no  special 


134  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

connection  with  the  ritual  by  which  Israel  expressed 
its  devotion  to  Jehovah;  He  is  not  set  apart  by  Israel 
as  its  representative  in  religious  matters. 

Consequently  the  qualifications  of  the  prophet  con- 
trast, at  almost  every  point,  with  those  of  the  priest. 
The  latter  must  belong  to  a  certain  tribe  or  clan,  the 
High  Priest  must — in  theory — be  in  the  direct  line  of 
male  succession  from  Aaron ;  the  prophet  may  be  of 
any  tribe  or  family.  The  priest  must  possess  physical 
qualifications,  and  is  limited  in  the  choice  of  a  wife ; 
neither  set  of  rules  applies  to  the  prophet.  The  priest 
holds  office  in  virtue  of  his  birthright,  by  which  he 
shares  the  family  inheritance  of  a  divine  election 
made  centuries  before  his  time ;  the  prophet  derives 
his  authority  solely  from  a  personal  call,  which  he 
himself  has  experienced. 

ix.  Seers,  Sons  of  the  Prophets  (1  Sam.  ix.,  x. ; 
1  Kings  xviii.  ;  2  Kings  ii.-vi.  ;  Jer.  xxvii.,  etc. ;  Ezek. 
xiii.,  etc. ;  Zech.  xiii.  2-6). — 0.  T.  draws  a  sharp  distinc- 
tion between  the  professional  and  the  inspired  prophet. 
The  true  prophetic  status  was  entirely  independent  of 
any  connection  with  a  recognised  order  and  could  not 
be  acquired  by  any  such  connection  (Ames  vii.  14). 
Nevertheless  there  was  a  prophetic  order,  with  a 
regular  professional  status;  and  as  the  inspired 
prophet  might  often  arise  within  this  order  or  identify 
himself  with  it,  the  popular  mind  would  often  fail  to 
distinguish  him  from  the  ordinary  ecclesiastic.  The 
professional  order  was  numerous  :  we  read  of  eight 
hundred  and  fifty  prophets  collected  to  meet  Elijah 
at  Carmel,  and  of  a  hundred  prophets  of  Jehovah 
hidden  by  Obadiah  (cf.  also  the  other  references  above). 


ISRAEL    AS   PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      135 

Their  functions  were  similar  to  those  of  the  inspired 
prophets ;  they  were  teachers  and  preachers,  and 
claimed  to  receive  revelations  by  dreams  and  visions. 
In  1  Sam.  ix.,  x.,  the  prophets  are  possessed  by  a  kind 
of  ecstasy.  According  to  1  Sam.  ix.  9,  these  ancient 
prophets  were  called  "  seers,"  possibly  because  they 
exercised  a  kind  of  second  sight.  From  1  Sam.  ix. 
we  gather  that  people  resorted  to  the  seer  to  obtain 
supernatural  information  as  to  such  very  practical 
details  as  lost  asses,  and  that  they  paid  for  this 
information.  In  later  times  this  prophetic  function 
degenerated  into  mere  divination  and  magic.  The 
members  of  the  prophetic  order  apparently  lived  by 
their  profession  ;  in  addition  to  the  above  instance, 
we  read  that  four  hundred  prophets  of  Baal  ate  at 
Jezebel's  table,  and  doubtless  pious  princes  were  not 
less  liberal  to  prophets  of  Jehovah.  We  are  not 
expressly  told  how  a  man  entered  this  prophetic 
order ;  probably,  as  is  implied  in  the  case  of  Saul,  a 
capacity  for  ecstasy  was  one  qualification  ;  also,  a  man 
might  be  acknowledged  as  a  prophet  when  he  claimed, 
like  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  to  have  received  a  divine 
call ;  moreover,  the  history  of  Elisha  shows  that  the 
prophet  sometimes  received  his .  call  from  another 
prophet,  whose  disciple  and  assistant  he  became. 
Women  also,  like  Deborah,  might  be  prophetesses. 
The  common  theory  that  the  prophetic  guilds,  "  sons 
of  the  prophets,"  were  devoted  to  the  study  of 
religious  tradition  and  literature  is,  at  any  rate,  a 
very  plausible  one.  In  the  earlier  history,  Samuel, 
Elijah,  and  Elisha  are  closely  identified  with  the 
prophetic  order ;  but  later  on  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and 


136  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

the  author  of  Zech.  xii.-xiv.,  denounce  the  prophets  as 
seeking,  in  the  interests  of  tradition,  to  hinder  men 
from  accepting  new  truths  of  divine  revelation. 
The  Levitical  law  and  the  legal  edition  of  the  history 
— Chronicles — ignore  the  professional  prophets. 

x.  The  Remnant,  §  6,  vii. — The  prophetic  doctrine 
of  the  Remnant  recognises  a  new  community  of 
faithful  Israelites  gathered  out  of  unfaithful  Israel. 

xi.  Nazirites  (Num.  vi.)  appear  in  the  Law  as 
consecrated  in  a  special  way,  by  a  temporary  vow  to 
abstain  from  intoxicants  and  from  cutting  of  the 
hair.  The  instances  in  history,  Samuel  and  Samson, 
were  under  a  vow  for  life. 

xii.  Scribes  (Ezra  vii.  6,  21,  25). — In  the  period 
of  later  Judaism,  when  written  records  were  super- 
seding the  immediate  guidance  of  the  Divine  Spirit, 
the  scribes,  or  students  and  interpreters  of  these 
records  and  especially  of  the  law,  in  some  measure 
took  the  place  of  prophetic  teaching.  Ezra  is  their 
prototype,*  and  his  reformation  is  the  first  evidence 
that  supreme  religious  influence  had  passed  from  the 
prophets  and  priests  to  the  scribes. 

20.  Sacred  Seasons,  i.  Sanctity  of  All  Time. — 
As  the  sacred  places  and  persons  represented  the 
sanctity  of  the  land  and  the  nation,  so  modern 
thought  may  regard  the  sacred  seasons  as  repre- 
senting the  sanctity  of  all  time.  But  this  idea  is 
too  abstract  to  be  formulated  in  0.  T.  Nevertheless, 
when  we  examine  the  sacred  seasons  in  detail,  we 
shall  see  that  they  have  reference  to  all  seasons. 
As   the  land  is   God's  permanent   provision  for  the 

*  Tfye  "  scy ibes  "  in  Samuel  and  Kings  are  state  secretaries, 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      137 

physical  needs  of  Israel,  so  the  processes  of  the 
seasons,  rain,  heat,  and  cold,  and  the  natural  forces 
of  vegetation,  are  His  continuous  working,  through 
which  the  land  yields  its  increase.  The  same 
necessity  which  led  to  the  setting  apart  of  sacred 
places  and  persons,  also  led  to  the  consecration  of 
special  seasons.  The  sanctity  of  nature  became  more 
conspicuous  by  such  concentration,  and  it  was  then 
possible  to  bring  the  whole  people  to  the  sacred 
places — the  high  places  or  the  temple — and  to 
permit  them  to  witness  the  ministrations  of  their 
sacred  representatives — the  priests. 

ii.  The  Agricultural  Feasts. — The  elaborate  and 
somewhat  artificial  gradation  in  the  sanctity  of  the 
soil  and  the  nation,  is  only  partly  paralleled  in 
that  of  the  seasons.  The  natural  sequences  of  the 
year  were  too  imperious  to  be  ignored  in  the  interests 
of  ritual  symmetry.  Hence  we  are  concerned  with 
the  agricultural  calendar.  Immediately  before  the 
barley  harvest — which  precedes  the  wheat  harvest 
— was  held  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  (Jfaeeoth), 
at  which  the  firstfruits  of  the  barley  harvest  were 
presented  to  Jehovah  (Lev.  xxiii.  10-12).  After  an 
interval  of  seven  weeks,  occupied  by  the  wheat 
harvest,  came  the  harvest  feast  (Exod.  xxiii.  16), 
at  which  were  offered  the  firstfruits  of  the  wheat 
(Lev.  xxiii.  15-17),  and  of  all  the  products  of  the 
soil  (Exod.  xxiii.  19  ;  Deut.  xxvi.  2,  10).  The  times 
of  these  feasts  were  obviously  fixed  by  the  practical 
needs  of  agriculture,  and  the  whole  harvest  was 
consecrated  by  offering  the  firstfruits. 

At  the   close   of   the   vintage,    came   the   vintage 


138  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

feast,  the  Feast  of  Ingathering  (Exod.  xxiii.  19), 
or  Tabernacles  (Lev.  xxiii.  24;  Deut.  xvi.  13),  at 
which  firstfruits  of  wine  and  oil  were  offered. 
These  were  the  three  great  feasts  (Excd.  xxiii.  14; 
Deut.  xvi.  16),  at  which  all  males  were  to  appear 
before  Jehovah — i.e.,  at  His  sanctuary.  They  linked 
the  agricultural  seasons  into  a  sacred  cycle,  and 
recognised  the  fruits  of  the  earth  as  Jehovah's  gift 
to  Israel. 

iii.  Historical  Feasts. — The  three  agricultural 
feasts  recognised  the  sanctity  of  nature,  and  acknow- 
ledged Jehovah  as  the  God  of  nature.  So  the 
historical  feasts,  by  attaching  a  religious  significance 
to  the  events  of  the  national  history,  recognised 
Jehovah's  moral  government  of  the  world,  and  saw 
the  workings  of  His  Providence  therein.  Motives  of 
convenience  wTould  fix  the  commemoration  of  national 
anniversaries  at  the  times  of  the  agricultural  feasts ; 
even  when  such  association  was  not  determined  by 
synchronism. 

(a)  Passover  was  celebrated  in  connection  with  the 
Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread.  Its  ritual  commemorated, 
in  dramatic  fashion,  the  slaying  of  the  Egyptian 
firstborn  and  the  exemption  of  the  Israelites  on  the 
eve  of  the  Exodus. 

(b)  The  Feast  of  Weeks  (Pentecost)  is  the  name 
given  in  Deut.  xvi.  10,  to  the  harvest  feast,  where 
also  the  law  of  its  observance  contains  the  command : 
"  Thou  shalt  remember  thou  wast  a  bondman  in 
Egypt."  Later  Judaism  gave  a  further  historical 
significance  to  this  feast  by  regarding  it  as  the 
celebration  of  the  giving  of  the  lav/. 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH     139 

(c)  Tabernacles. — The  vintage  feast  came  to  be 
called  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  because  camping 
out  in  booths  was  regarded  as  a  commemoration 
of  the  life  in  the  wilderness.  As  the  mode  of 
life  in  the  wilderness  was  not  connected  with 
any  season  of  the  year,  this  association  with  the 
vintage  feast  is  clearly  a  mere  matter  of  con- 
venience. 

(d)  Purim  (Esth.  ix.  20-32)  commemorated  the 
deliverance  of  the  Jews  through  Esther  and  Mordecai. 

(e)  Dedication  commemorated  the  rededication  of 
the  Temple  by  Judas  Maccaba3us  after  its  profanation 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes. 

(/)  Fasts  (Zech.  vii.  3-5,  viii.  19).— The  disasters 
of  the  close  of  the  Jewish  monarchy  were  com- 
memorated during  the  exile  by  fasts. 

iv.  Astronomical  Feasts. — The  agricultural  feasts, 
as  dependent  on  the  annual  circuit  of  the  sun,  are  in 
a  sense  astronomical,  but  their  significance  connects 
with  the  ripening  of  grain  and  fruit,  and  not  with 
the  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  Similarly  the 
fixing  of  Passover  and  Tabernacles  at  a  full  moon 
was  probably  a  matter  of  convenience.  Some  of 
the  feasts,  however,  are  distinctly  astronomical, 
and  imply  the  dominion  of  Jehovah  over  the 
heavens. 

(a)  New  Moon. — This  is  the  sacred  season  most 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  history  and  the  prophets. 
Little  stress  is  laid  upon  it  in  the  legislation — cf., 
however,  Ezekiel  and  Chronicles — probably  because 
its  observance  was  associated  with  the  corruptions  of 
the  high  places. 


140  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

(b)  New  Year,  Feast  of  Trumpets  (Lev.  xxiii.  24, 
25),  was  a  special  case  of  the  new  moon.* 

(c)  Sabbath,  in  its  widest  sense,  is  a  term  applied 
to  any  sacred  season,  as  one  of  rest,  but  its  special 
and  most  usual  meaning  is  the  concluding  day  of  a 
week  of  seven  days.  The  time  of  observance  of  the 
sabbath  of  course  depended  on  the  apparent  move- 
ments of  the  sun — i.e.,  the  succession  of  days  and 
nights,  but  the  period  of  seven  days  probably 
corresponds  to  a  quarter  of  a  lunar  month  (29|  days), 
either  as  a  rough  approximation,  or  because  originally 
a  day  or  two  were  set  apart  for  the  festival  of  the 
new  moon.  According  to  Gen.  i.-ii.  4a,  the  six 
working  days  correspond  to  the  period  occupied  by 
God  in  creating  the  Universe,  and  the  sabbath  to 
the  period  during  which  God  rests  after  having 
finished  His  Creation.  Thus  man's  labour  and  rest 
symbolise  and  commemorate  the  divine  activity  and 
the  divine  repose.  In  Deut.  v.  15  the  sabbath  is 
regarded  as  a  commemoration  of  the  Exodus. 

o 

(d)  Seven  as  a  Sacred  Number. — A  week,  or  period 
of  seven  days,  being  thus  definitely  marked  off  by 
the  constantly  recurring  observance  of  the  sabbath, 
the  periods  of  the  Jewish  calendar  are  naturally 
reckoned  by  weeks.  Passover  and  Tabernacles  each 
last  a  week,  though  in  the  Levitical  law  an  extra 
day  is  added.  Then  by  analogy  "  seven  "  is  treated 
as  a  sacred  number  for  other  periods  than  days,  and 
for  other  objects  than  periods.     Thus  the   Feast  of 

*  This  "  New  Year  "  was  the  civil  year,  and  was  the  middle 
— 1st  of  7th  month — of  the  sacred  year,  which  began  with 
Nisan,  about  Easter, 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      141 

Weeks,  is  seven — or  a  week  of — weeks  after  Passover ; 
the  sabbatical  year,  when  the  land  rests,  came  every 
seventh  year  ;  and  the  Jubilee  at  the  close  of  seven 
times  seven  years.  These  periods  of  cessation  from 
labour  are  not  merely  humane  and  utilitarian;  at 
such  times,  Israel,  the  people,  the  land,  and  all 
living  creatures,  is  stilled  into  silent  reverence  before 
Jehovah. 

v.  The  Day  of  Atonement  (Exod.  xxx.  10; 
Lev.  xvi.,  xxiii.  26-32;  Num.  xxix.  7-11.  CI'. 
Ezek.  xlv.  18-20). — This  great  fast  day  stands  apart 
from  all  other  sacred  seasons ;  it  does  not  connect 
with  agriculture,  national  history,  or  the  lunar  or 
solar  calendar.  It  is  apparently  fixed  for  the  10th 
day  of  the  7th  month  with  reference  to  Tabernacles 
on  the  15th.  Its  ritual  symbolised  the  purification 
of  the  Most  Sacred  Place,  the  Temple,  the  altar,  the 
priesthood,  the  nation,  and  the  land  from  all  unclean- 
ness  contracted  during  the  previous  year.  It  was 
thus  a  necessary  preparation  for  the  great  rejoicings 
of  Tabernacles,  the  most  popular  of  0.  T.  feasts,  at 
which  the  whole  produce  of  the  sacred  soil  and  of  the 
labours  of  the  sacred  nation  was  consecrated  to  Jehovah. 
The  purification  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  assured  the 
people  that  their  offerings  would  not  be  rendered 
unacceptable  by  any  taint  of  uncleanness,  and  that 
they  might  safely  enjoy  the  fruits  of  the  earth. 
According  to  the  correct  reading — cf.  LXX.  and 
It.V.Mg. — Ezekiel  proposed  to  establish  a  day  of 
atonement  to  be  observed  every  six  months. 

21.  Sacred    Acts.      i.  In    Connection   with    the 
Land. — The  ritual  observances  of  Israel,  its  religious 


142  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

acts  and  abstentions,  are  naturally  connected  with 
the  sanctity  of  nature  and  of  the  land,  of  Providence 
and  the  nation.  The  sanctity  of  the  land  is 
symbolised  by  abstention  from  cultivation  during  the 
subbatical  and  Jubilee  years,  by  various  regulations 
intended  to  secure  the  ceremonial  cleanness  of  the 
land — e.g., against  sowing  mingled  seed  (Lev.  xix.  19), 
for  the  expiation  of  crime  by  an  unknown  hand 
(D.ut.  xxi.  1-9),  by  the  offering  of  firstfruits  and 
firstlings,  and  by  sacrifices  of  thankoffering.  More- 
over, land  and  people  were  alike  included  in  the  more 
general  observances  of  the  national  ritual. 

ii.  In  Connection  with  the  People.  (a)  Cir- 
cumcision (Gen.  xvii. ;  Lev.  xii.  3). — The  physical 
mark  of  circumcision  was  an  outward  token  of  the 
consecration  of  Israel  to  Jehovah ;  as  a  national 
observance  and  one  of  the  conditions  of  the  covenant 
between  Jehovah  and  Israel,  it  was  obligatory  on 
male  Israelites  and  on  all  foreigners  admitted  to  the 
Passover  (Exod.  xii.  48).  In  Deut.  x.  16,  xxx.  G, 
and  Jer.  iv.  4,  the  rite  of  circumcision  is  used  as  a 
figure  for  spiritual  purification. 

(b)  Cleanness  (Lev.  v.-xv.  ;  Num.  xix.;  Deut. 
xiv.  Of.  Haggai  ii.  10-14). — As  a  rule,  cleanness  is 
the  indispensable  external  condition  of  sanctity  in 
things  and  persons.  Cleanness  is  also  required  of 
every  one  and  every  thing  brought  into  contact  with 
sacred  things  and  persons.  Cleanness  in  persons  con- 
sists in  the  state  of  body — e.g.,  issues,  menstruation, 
leprosy,  childbirth,  etc.,  render  unclean — and  in  the 
use  of  proper  food.  Moreover,  uncleanness — not 
cleanness — is   contagious,    both    things   and    persons 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      143 

become  unclean  through  contact  with  persons,  animals, 
and  things  already  unclean.  All  dead  bodie-,  certain 
animals,  etc.,  were  unclean  in  themselves  and  com- 
municated uncleanness. 

In  the  more  advanced  stages  of  Israelite  religion, 
the  uncleanness  of  certain  definite  persons,  animals, 
things  in  themselves,  or  in  certain  states,  or  under 
certain  conditions,  had  become  a  matter  of  established 
custom,  the  original  ground  of  their  uncleanness  was 
unknown,  and  0.  T.  takes  the  customs  for  granted, 
without  feeling  that  they  needed  to  be  justified. 
But  the  cleanness  of  the  Law  included  the  avoidance 
of  everything  mean  and  filthy,  as  unworthy  of  a 
people  consecrated  to  Jehovah,  and  as  disqualifying 
from  enjoyment  of  the  sacred  land,  and  from 
participation  in  the  national  fellowship  with  Jehovah. 

(c)  War. — In  ancient  Israel,  victory  in  battle  was 
regarded  as  a  most  important  form  of  Jehovah's 
favour  for  His  people.  Accordingly  Micah  (iii.  5,  etc.) 
speaks  of  "hallowing"  or  "consecrating" — i.e.,  de- 
claring war. 

(d)  Sacrifices  were  of  very  varied  and  general  signi- 
ficance and  will  be  dealt  with  separately  below.  They 
often  served  to  express  the  sanctity  of  Israel,  either 
as  tokens  of  devotion  to  Jehovah,  or  as  the  ritual 
prescribed  to  remove  ceremonial  uncleanness. 

(e)  Other  Rites. — Washings,  sprinkling  with  blood 
or  ashes,  were  also  prescribed  as  a  means  of  purifi- 
cation. 

in.  Connection  of  Sacred  Acts  with  the  Sanctu 
aries,  Feasts,  and  Priesthood.  —  Sacrifices,  the 
ordinary  act   of  Israelite  worship,  according  to  the 


144  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

Levitical  law  could  only  be  offered  at  the  Temple, 
with  the  aid  of  the  priests,  and  were  most  numerous 
and  important  at  the  feasts  and  fasts.  There  was 
thus  a  kind  of  mutual  sanctification,  the  sacrifices 
secured  and  increased  the  sanctity  of  the  feasts  and 
fasts,  the  Temple,  and  the  priesthood ;  and  the  sacri- 
fices themselves  obtained  a  greater  sanctity  from  the 
places  and  seasons  at  which  they  were  offered  and  the 
persons  who  assisted  at  the  celebration.  The  ordinary 
custom  of  the  monarchy  was  not  that  prescribed  by 
the  Levitical  law ;  popular  usage  recognised  numerous 
sanctuaries  which  were  doubtless  the  usual  places  for 
offering  sacrifices,  but  altars  were  erected  in  many 
other  places,  and  sacrifices  frequently  offered,  without 
any  professional  assistance. 

iv.  Sacrifices,  (a)  Occasion. — These  were  the 
ordinary  and  necessary  acts  of  Israelite,  as  of  almost 
all  ancient  religions.  The  term  is  often  extended  to 
include  any  and  every  kind  of  offtring  to  the  Deity. 
As  the  motives  and  circumstances  of  such  gifts  are 
very  varied,  the  significance  and  character  of  sacrifices 
were  equally  varied.  They  were  offered  on  almost 
every  occasion  of  religious  worship,  at  the  daily  morn- 
ing and  evening  service  of  the  Temple,  on  the 
sabbaths,  new  moons,  and  other  feasts ;  on  all  special 
religious  occasions,  especially  by  way  of  thanksgiving 
at  the  consecration  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  Temple, 
and  of  Nehemiah's  walls,  and  at  the  installation  of  the 
ark  in  Zion ;  at  the  ordination  of  priests,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  covenants  (Exod.  xxiv.  5  ;  Psalm  1.  5, 
etc.),  on  occasions  of  public  danger — e.g.,  before  the 
battle  of  Ebenezer  (1  Sam.  vii.  9) ;  for  the  cleansing  of 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      145 

leprosy,  the  trial  of  jealousy  (Num.  v.  18),  on  the 
renewal  or  fulfilment  of  a  Nazirite  vow  (Num.  vi.), 
or  in  connection  with  the  cleansing  of  individuals, 
officials,  or  the  nation  from  accidental  breaches  of 
the  law,  and  from  some  other  forms  of  wrongdoing. 
Sacrifices,  however,  are  not  offered  in  atonement  for 
wilful,  heinous  sins. 

(b)  Bloodless  Offerings. — To  define  sacrifice  as  any 
offering  is  accurate  from  certain  points  of  view,  yet 
it  imperfectly  corresponds  to  either  0.  T.  or  English 
usage.  Except  qorban,  which  is  a  technical  term 
confined  to  the  Levitical  law,  0.  T.  has  no  wTord,  in 
common  use,  which  covers  so  wide  an  area  of  meaning, 
but  makes  a  broad  distinction  between  bloodless  and 
animal  offerings.  Popular  English  uses  "sacrifice" 
of  animal  offerings.  Before  considering  these,  how- 
ever, we  must  notice  the  various  kinds  of  bloodless 
offerings.  All  gifts  for  the  Temple  and  the  priest- 
hood were  regarded  as  offerings  to  Jehovah.  The 
most  common  term  for  such  offerings  is  tern/ma, 
"heave-offering,"  Temple  tribute  (Exod.  xxx.  13), 
land  (Ezek.  xlv.  1),  tithes  (Num.  xviii.  26),  contribu- 
tions for  the  construction  of  the  Tabernacle  (Exod. 
xxv.  2),  portions  of  sacrifices  given  to  priests — e.g. 
"  heave -shoulder  "  (Lev.  vil).  A  less  common  term  is 
tenupha,  "  wave-offering  "  ;  it  is  similar  in  etymological 
meaning  and  in  application  to  teruma ;  the  "  wave- 
breast "  (Lev.  vii.  31),  and  "wave-sheaf,"  etc.  (Lev. 
xxiii.),  were  portions  given  to  the  priests,  and  the 
gold  offered  for  the  Tabernacle  (Exod.  xxxviii.  24)  is 
called  tenupha.  Both  terms  were  apparently  derived 
from  the  manner  of  presentation  before  Jehovah. 

10 


14C  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

While  t&rwma  and  tenupha  were  general  terms, 
which  might  include  part  of  an  animal  sacrifice, 
minha  (A.V.,  "meat-offering,"  R.V.,  "meal-offering"), 
in  the  legislation,*  becomes  a  technical  term  for  an 
offering  of  meal  or  some  form  of  corn,  mixed  with 
oil,  frankincense,  and  salt  (Lev.  ii.,  vi.,  14-18  ;  Num. 
xv.  1-16).  Special  forms  of  the  minha  were  the 
minha  qena'oth,  "  offering  of  jealousy,"  in  the  ritual 
observed  when  a  wife  was  suspected  of  adultery 
(Num.  v.  15),  and  the  minha  of  the  'asham  (A.V., 
"trespass-offering,"  R.V.,  "guilt-offering,"  Lev.  v.  11) ; 
no  oil  or  frankincense  were  mixed  with  these  minhas. 
The  "  drink-offering,"  nesek,  consisted  of  wine  (Num. 
xv.  1-16).  The  minha  and  nesek  were  the  usual 
accompaniments  of  the  ordinary  animal  sacrifices,  but 
they  were  also  offered  independently. 

In  addition  to  the  use  of  frankincense  with  the 
minha,  incense  was  burnt  on  the  altar  of  incense,  and 
in  the  Most  Sacred  Place  on  the  Day  of  Atonement. 
Exod.  xxx.  3-38  gives  a  recipe  for  "  most  sacred  " 
incense.  It  is  apparently  intended  that  this  special 
incense  was  to  be  exclusively  used  for  the  altar  of 
incense  and  the  ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

Another  special  bloodless  offering  was  the  "  shew- 
bread,"  lehem  (ha]?)  panim,  bread  of  the  face  or 
presence,  (lehem)  maareketh,  bread  laid  in  order 
(Lev.  xxiv.  5-9;  cf.  Exod.  xxv.  30,  xxxv.  13; 
1  Sam.  xxi.  1-7).  Twelve  loaves,  sprinkled  like  the 
minha  with  frankincense — lebona,  apparently  not  the 
"  most  sacred  "  incense — were  placed  on  the  table  of 

*  In  earlier  literature  it  is  almost  a  synonym  for  the  later 
qorhan. 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      147 

shewbread  in  the  Sacred  Place,  every  sabbath  at  the 
end  of  the  week  they  were  eaten  by  the  priests  in 
a  sacred  place.  They  are,  nevertheless,  said  to  be 
"  most  sacred  .  .  .  amongst  the  fire-offerings  of 
Jehovah,"  the  reference  probably  being  to  the  incense. 
The  mention  in  Exod.  xxv.  29,  xxxvii.  1G  ;  Num. 
iv.  7,  of  bowls,  flagons,  and  spoons,  for  the  table  of 
shewbread,  has  been  held  to  indicate  that  drink- 
offerings  were  offered  with  the  shewbread.* 

(c)  Animal  Sacrifices. — Zebah — of  which  "sacrifice" 
in  E.Y.,  is  usually  the  equivalent — meant  originally 
a  slaughter.  The  etymology  suggests  "  sacrifice  "  as 
a  religious  function  invariably  connected  with  any 
meal  at  which  flesh  was  eaten,  or  more  accurately,  as 
the  religious  aspect  of  such  a  feast.  It  was  not  a 
mere  grace  before  or  after  meat,  the  whole  meal 
was  sacramental.  By  the  burning  of  certain  parts 
of  the  festal  ox  or  sheep,  Jehovah  received  a  share 
of  the  meal  and  the  feast  became  a  symbol  of  His 
fellowship  with  His  worshippers.  The  dominant  in- 
terest in  such  a  sacrifice  was  only  religious,  in  the 
sense  in  which  all  ancient  life  was  religious.  Such 
sacrifices  symbolised  the  sanctity  of  the  enjoyment  of 
temporal  blessings;  cf.  the  sacrificial  feast  to  which 
Samuel  invited  Saul,  and  the  annual  sacrifice  of 
David's  family  at  Bethlehem. 

In  view  of  the  etymology  of  zebah,  and  of  the 
fact  that  zbh  is  used — though  not  exclusively — 
for  offering  all  kinds  of  animal  sacrifices,  and  that 
altars  used  for  all  such  sacrifices  are  mizbeahs,  we 
should  expect  to  find  zebah  as  a  general  term  for  all 
*  Schultz,  i.  355. 


148  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

kinds  of  animal  sacrifices ;  but  such  a  use  of  zebah  is 
rare.  Even  from  the  beginning  a  sharp  distinction  is 
made  between  the  sacrificial  feast,  at  which  Jehovah 
and  His  people  united  in  one  common  gladness,  and  the 
sacrifices  offered  as  a  means  of  sanctification,  purifica- 
tion and  expiation.  The  constant  association  of  zebah 
with  the  feast  practically  limited  its  use  to  those 
sacrifices  of  the  later  ritual,  which  retained  most  of 
the  old  festal  sense  of  joyous  fellowship  with  Jehovah. 
Accordingly  zebah,  zebah  shelamim,  shelamim  (as  plural ; 
the  sing,  only  Amos  v.  22),  E.Y.,  "peace  offering,"  R.V. 
Mg.,  "  thank-offering,"  are  usually  equivalent  terms. 
The  word  shelamim  connects  with  the  root  sh  I  m, 
to  requite,  or  repay.  It  represented  the  gratitude 
and  devotion  to  Jehovah,  naturally  felt  at  any  festal 
meal;  it  is  therefore  associated  with  the  national 
feasts,  both  ordinary  and  special,  and  also  expressed 
individual  gratitude  for  special  mercies.  The  z.  sh. 
might  be  the  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  a  freewill  offering, 
nedaba,  or  a  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  z.  toda,  or  z. 
teru'a  (Psalm  xxvii.  6).  The  z.  sh.  is  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  the  'ola  (E.V.,  "  burnt  offering  "),  by 
the  fact  that  only  part  of  it — mostly  the  fat — was 
consumed  on  the  altar,  and  the  rest  was  eaten  by 
the  offerers  and  by  the  priests.  In  these,  as  in  all 
sacrifices,  the  victim  was  to  be  without  blemish,  and 
the  offerer  laid  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  victim, 
and  its  blood  was  sprinkled  on  the  altar  (Lev. 
iii.,  vi.  12  ;  vii.,  xix.  5-8). 

The  'ola,  E.V.,  "  burnt-offering  M — "  that  which  goes 
up,"  either  on  to  the  altar  or  in  smoke  to  heaven, 
is   constantly   couplpd   with   zebah,  z.   sh.,   shelamim, 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE    OF  JEHOVAH      149 

and  in  many  cases  each  noun  is  governed  by  a 
cognate  verb — e.y.,  1  Sam.  vi.  15,  heelu  'oloth  way- 
yizbehu  zebahim,  "  they  sent  up  'olas  and  slaughtered 
zebalis."  The  'olas  and  zebahs  are  thus  indicated  as 
the  two  great  classes  of  sacrifices.  The  characteristic 
feature  of  the  'ola  was  that  the  whole  of  the  animal 
was  burnt.  Hence  the  symbolism  was  not  that  of 
fellowship,  but  of  gift  pure  and  simple,  entire  sur- 
render. The  rite  became  the  natural  expression  of 
any  intense  feeling  of  gratitude,  petition,  or  pro- 
pitiation (Lev.  i.  4),  and  formed,  as  it  were,  the 
natural  basis  of  almost  all  acts  of  public  and  private 
worship. 

The  hattath  (E.V.,  "sin-offering,"  Lev.  iv.,  v.,  vi. 
24-30;  Num.  xv.  22);  and  'askant,  (A.V.,  "trespass 
offering,"  R.V.,  "guilt-offering,"  Lev.  v.-vii.,  xiv., 
xix. ;  cf.,  for  both,  Ezek.  xl.-xlvii.)  are  not  clearly 
distinguished.  In  Lev.  vii.  7  we  read,  "As  is  the 
hattath  so  is  the  'asham  :  there  is  one  law  for  both," 
and  according  to  Schultz  (i.  380,  note),  "  in  Lev.  v. 
6-8,  12,  'asham  and  hattath  are  interchanged,  as 
absolutely  synonymous."  Both  serve  to  remove  un- 
cleanness  or  loss  of  sanctity  caused  by  sin,  see  for 
h.  Lev.  iv.  1-3,  and  for  'a.  Lev.  v.  1-6,  vi.  1-7; 
and,  as  we  have  seen  above,  both  are  said  to  have 
the  same  ritual,  etc.  In  view  of  the  enumeration 
of  offences  in  Lev.  v.  1-vi.  7,  for  which  an  '«.  must  be 
offered  as  compared  with  the  more  general  statements 
in  iv.  1-3,  with  regard  to  the  h,  it  appears  that  a.  was 
to  be  offered  in  compensation  for  wrong  done  to  the 
material  rights  of  God  or  man,  injury  to  property, 
or    the   withholding   of  what   was   lawfully   due;    h 


150  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

was  required  to  atone  for  any  breach  of  Jehovah's 
commands.  The  directions  as  to  ritual  are  in  some 
passages  practically  identical  for  both — e.g.,  Lev.  iv. 
28,  32,  v.  6;  but  under  h.  we  have  provisions  for 
what  is  to  be  offered  by  an  individual,  by  the  congre- 
gation, by  the  ruler ;  under  \t.  by  individuals  of 
different  degrees  of  wealth.  A  regulation  peculiar  to 
the  'a.  is  that  the  wrongdoer  is  to  make  compensation 
to  the  full  amount  of  his  fraud,  plus  one-fifth.  The 
ritual  of  h.  was  as  follows  :  the  priest  was  to  lay 
hands  on  the  victim,  kill  it,  sprinkle  part  of  the 
blood  before  the  veil,  put  some  on  the  horns  of  the 
altar  of  incense,  and  pour  out  the  rest  at  the  base  of 
the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  The  fat  was  to  be 
removed  and  burnt  on  this  altar,  and  the  rest  to  be 
burnt  "  without  the  camp,  in  a  clean  place,  where  the 
ashes  were  poured  out."  In  the  regulations  for  the 
'«.,  however,  the  residue  of  the  flesh  was  to  be  eaten 
by  the  priests  in  a  sacred  place  (Lev.  vii.  6  ;  cf.  v.  13). 
The  poor  man's  'a.  may  take  the  form  of  a  minha 
offered  without  oil  or  frankincense. 

'A.  occurs  in  1  Sam.  vi.  and  2  Kings  xii.  16,  as  a 
fine  or  money  penalty ;  otherwise  neither  'a.  nor  h. 
occurs  in  the  history  except  in  Chron.,  Ezra,  Neh.,  or 
in  the  prophets  except  in  Ezekiel.  While  h.  occurs 
frequently  in  the  Levitical  laws ;  '«.  is  only  enjoined 
in  cases  of  compensation,  and  in  cleansing  leprous 
persons  or  houses  (Lev.  xiv.  15),  and  in  renewing 
Naziiite  vows  (Lev.  vi.  12). 

(d)  Grouping  of  Sacrifices. — The  minha  and  nesek 
might  sometimes  be  offered  alone — e.g.  the  minim  for 
&n'asham  (Lev.  vii.),  David's  nesek,  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  16)} 


IS&AEL   AS   PEOPLE   OF  JKlIoVAll      151 

but  usually  they  were  appendages  of  other  sacrifices 
(cf.  above).  Since,  when  an  'asham  consisted  of  a  pair 
of  birds,  one  of  them  was  to  be  the  \isham  and  the 
other  an  'ola,  we  may  perhaps  gather  that  an  'ola 
usually  accompanied  an  \isham  or  hattath.  In  the 
ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  an  'ola  accompanies 
the  hattath ;  so  also  in  Lev.  xiv.,  xv. ;  Num.  vi., 
vii.,  xxviii.,  xxix.  In  the  history  (Judges — 2  Kings), 
'ola  and  zebah  shelamim  sometimes  occur,  each  of 
them,  alone ;  but  much  more  frequently  coupled 
together.  The  daily  service  of  the  Temple  included 
the  offering  of  two  lambs,  one  in  the  morning,  and 
one  in  the  evening,  as  a  "continual  burnt-offering" 
(olath  tamid  ;  Exod.  xxix.  38-46)  ;  in  the  ritual  of 
the  New  Moon,  First  Fruits,  Passover,  Trumpets,  Day 
of  Atonement,  and  Tabernacles,  this  is  supplemented 
by  other  'olas  and  combined  with  a  hattath.  In  the 
account  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Tabernacle  (Num. 
vii.),  and  in  similar  narratives  in  2  Chron.  xxix.,  xxxi., 
we  have  a  complete  set  of  sacrifices,  'ola,  minha,  zebah, 
shelamim,  hattath. 

v.  Ritual  of  Passover  (with  Feast  of  Un- 
leavened Bread),  Exod.  xxiii.  15;  Lev.  xxiii.  5-8 ; 
Num.  xxviii.  16-25;  and  Day  of  Atonement,  Lev. 
xvi.,  xxiii.  26-32  ;  Num.  xxix.  7-11. — The  characteristic 
features  of  the  Passover  (cf.  above)  were  on  the  one 
hand  the  offering  of  firstfruits,  on  the  other  the 
dramatic  commemoration  of  the  events  of  the  Exodus. 
On  the  Day  of  Atonement  the  High  Priest,  not  in  his 
Bp  cial  robes,  but  in  the  simple  white  linen  garments 
of  an  ordinary  priest,  offered  first  a  hattath  and  'ola 
for  himself   and  the  whole  priesthood ;  then  he   pre- 


152  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

sented  before  Jehovah,  at  the  door  of  the  Temple  two 
he-goats  and  a  ram,  and  cast  lots  between  the  goats, 
that  they  might  be  assigned  respectively  to  Jehovah 
and  to  Azazel.  Then  he  offered  the  bullock  as  an  'ola 
and  burnt  incense  and  sprinkled  the  blood  seven  times 
before  the  ark,  "to  make  atonement"  (kapper)  for 
himself  and  the  priesthood.  Then  he  similarly 
offered  the  goat  assigned  to  Jehovah  as  a  hattath  for 
the  Temple  and  the  nation,  and  sprinkled  its  blood 
before  the  ark,  and  also  sprinkled  the  blood  of  both 
victims  on  the  altar  of  incense.  Then  he  laid  his 
hands  on  the  goat  assigned  to  Azazel  (A.V.,  "the 
scapegoat,"  E.V.,  "the  goat"  .  .  .  for  Azazel),  con- 
fessed over  it  the  sins  of  the  nation,  and  sent  it  away 
to  be  let  loose  in  the  wilderness,  to  "  bear  upon  him 
all  their  iniquities  unto  a  solitary  land." 

vi.  Other  forms  of  Worship. — A  vow  (Num. 
xxx. ;  Deut.  xii.,  xxiii.)  was  a  promise  to  make  some 
offering  or  perform  some  service  to  Jehovah.  It 
might  be  a  simple  expression  of  gratitude ;  but  more 
often  a  vow,  like  Jacob's  at  Bethel,  and  like  Jephthah's, 
was  made  on  condition  that  Jehovah  granted  some 
favour.  We  have  numerous  examples  oi  prayer — e.g., 
Solomon's  at  the  Dedication  at  the  Temple,  often 
followed  by  direct  and  prompt  answer — e.g.,  Samuel  at 
Ebenezer.  The  granting  of  petitions  is  limited  by  the 
divine  will — e.g.,  Abraham's  intercession  for  Sodom, 
and  Jeremiah's  for  Judah,  are  rejected  ;  and  is  con- 
ditioned by  the  sincerity  of  the  worshipper  (Psalm 
lxvi.  18).  The  Levitical  law  is  silent  as  to  prayer, 
but  (Deut.  xxvi.  1-11)  provides  a  collect  to  be  re- 
peated by  the  offerer  of  firstfruits,   which,  however, 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      153 

is  a  declaration  rather  than  a  petition.  As  regards 
2?raise,  the  history  bears  abundant  testimony  to  the 
use  of  music,  singing,  and  dancing  to  express  thanks- 
giving, especially  in  connection  with  the  ark  and  the 
Temple  services.  Although  the  legislation  is  again 
silent,  the  Psalter  and  the  fact  of  its  inclusion  in  the 
canon  testify  to  the  large  part  which  was  played  by 
prayer  and  praise  in  the  religious  life  of  Israel. 

vii.  Fasts. — The  only  fast  appointed  by  the  Levi- 
tical  law  is  that  of  the  Day  of  Atonement.  From 
Zech.  vii.  5,  viii.  19,  we  learn  that  the  disasters  of 
the  close  of  the  monarchy  had  been  commemorated 
during  the  Captivity  by  fasts  in  the  fourth,  fifth, 
seventh,  and  tenth  months,  but  that  it  was  the  will  of 
Jehovah  that  these  fasts  should  cease.  Special  fasts 
were  also  proclaimed  on  special  occasions  (Ezra 
viii.  21,  etc.).  There  are  no  detailed  regulations  laid 
down  for  fasting :  Lev.  xxiii.  27,  29  simply  describes 
it  as  "afflicting  the  soul,"  Isa.  lviii.  5  speaks  of 
the  faster  as  "  bowing  down  his  head  as  a  rush  and 
spreading  sackcloth  and  ashes  under  him."  The 
essential  feature  of  abstinence  from  food  and  drink 
was  too  familiar  to  need  mentioning,  and  is  every- 
where taken  for  granted.  The  fast  is  a  natural 
symbol  of  dejection  caused  by  the  sense  of  Jehovah's 
anger. 

viii.  Dedication  of  Persons  and  Places. — The 
setting  apart  of  a  person  or  place  to  a  sacred  office  or 
use  was  accompanied  by  a  complete  set  of  sacrifices, 
etc.,  the  significance  of  each  being  appropriate  to 
such  an  occasion.  The  king,  priest,  or  sanctuary 
needed  to  be  cleansed  from  sin  by  the  atoning  rites  of 


154  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

the  hattath ;  such  dedications  were  occasions  for  the 
gratitude  and  self-surrender  of  the  'ola;  they  were 
marked  instances  of  that  fellowship  with  God  and 
man  expressed  by  the  zebah  shelamim.  The  z.  sh.  is 
not  distinctly  specified  in  the  ritual  for  ordination  of 
priests  in  Exod.  xxix.,  but  the  "ram  of  consecration" 
eaten  by  the  priests  in  the  sacred  place  is  virtually  a 
z.  sh.  The  Levitical  law,  on  account  of  the  circum- 
stances under  which  the  extant  edition  was  compiled, 
contains  no  ritual  for  a  royal  coronation,  but  1  Sam. 
xi.  15;  1  Chron.  xxix.  21,  22,  mention  the  offering  of 
numerous  sacrifices  on  such  occasions.  The  character- 
istic rite  of  such  dedications  was  anointing  with  oil. 
We  read  of  the  anointing  of  Saul,  Absalom,  David, 
Solomon,  Joash,  Jehoahaz,  and  Jehu.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  a  king  was  only  anointed  under 
exceptional  circumstances,  when  he  founded  a  new 
dynasty,  like  David,  or  when  his  claim  to  the  throne 
was  disputed,  like  Solomon ;  but  the  use  of  the 
phrase  "  Jehovah's  Anointed "  as  an  ordinary  royal 
title  rather  shows  that  all  kings  were  anointed.  For 
the  anointing  of  the  Tabernacle,  altar,  vessels,  and 
priests,  see  Lev.  viii.  This  anointing  with  oil  is 
interpreted  as  a  communication  of  the  Spirit  of 
Jehovah  (cf.  Zech.  iv.  6). 

The  distinction  between  the  status  of  the  king  or 
priest  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  prophet  on  the  other, 
is  shown  by  the  absence  of  any  ritual  dedication  of 
the  prophet.  Elijah,  apparently,  is  told  (1  Kings 
xix.  16)  to  anoint  his  successor,  but  we  are  not  told 
that  he  ever  did  so;  and  as  Jehovah,  in  the  same 
breath,  bids  him  anoint  two  kings,  the  word  "  anoint  " 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      155 

may  only  be  applied  to  the  successor  in  the  prophetic 
office,  in  the  loose  general  sense  of  appoint.  •  There  is 
no  other  reference  to  the  anointing  of  a  prophet; 
Isa.  lxi.  1,  "Jehovah  hath  anointed  me  to  preach," 
etc.,  is,  of  course,  figurative. 

ix.  Ban,  herem,  A.V.,  "  Accursed  Thing,"  R.V., 
"  Devoted  Thing." — While  sacrifices  consisted  of  de- 
sirable and  sacred  materials  which  formed  acceptable 
offerings,  things  evil  and  abominable  were  banned 
(A.Y.,  "accursed,"  B.V.,  "  devoted  ")  by  being  utterly 
destroyed — e.g.,  the  inhabitants  of  heathen  cities 
taken  in  war  (Deut.  xx.  10-18).  The  ban  might 
extend  to  males  only,  or  to  all  the  inhabitants,  and 
even  to  all  living  creatures.  In  the  case  of  Jericho 
(Josh.  x.  18)  the  ban  extended  to  everything  in  the 
city,  the  indestructible  metals  being  consecrated  to 
Jehovah.  Images  of  heathen  gods  are  herem.  The 
ban,  like  uncleanness,  is  contagious,  as  in  the  case  of 
Achan,  and  of  the  heathen  images  (Deut.  vii.  26). 
In  the  above  cases  the  ban  is  judicial  and  national, 
but  individuals  might  ban ;  according  to  the  analogy 
of  the  'ola,  things  which  could  not  be  sacrificed  might 
be  offered  to  Jehovah,  by  being  destroyed  as  herem, 
apparently  even  human  beings  (Lev.  xxvii.  28,  29. 
Cf.  the  case  of  Jephthah's  daughter).  According  to 
Num.  xviii.  14,  all  herem,  like  the  silver  and  gold  at 
Jericho,  belongs  to  the  priests,  as  Jehovah's  repre- 
sentatives ;  and  in  Lev.  xxvii.  28,  herein  is  said  to 
be  "most  sacred,"  like  the  inner  chamber  of  the 
Temple. 

x.  Oaths  and  Adjurations,  Blessings  and  Curses. 
— An  Israelite  used  oaths — i.e.,  invoked  upon  himself 


156  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

punishment  from  Jehovah — in  case  of  falsehood  or 
failure  to  keep  faith,  to  attest  his  evidence,  or  clear 
his  character  (Exod.  xxii.  6-11),  or  as  a  solemn 
form  of  promise  to  God  or  man.  Such  an  appeal  to 
Jehovah  was  a  token  of  loyalty  to  Him  and  trust  in 
Him  (Deut.  vi.  13).  Similarly  Eli  adjures  Samuel, 
in  God's  name,  or,  as  we  should  say,  for  God's  sake, 
to  tell  him  the  whole  truth  (1  Sam.  iii.  17). 
Blessings  and  curses  were  solemn  prayers  for  good  or 
ill  to  fall  upon  the  heads  of  others. 

22.  Sacred  Objects,  i.  Clean  and  Unclean  Things. 
— The  sacred  character  of  the  nation  and  the  land 
implied,  in  some  measure,  the  sacred  character 
of  the  objects  contained  in  the  land  and  familiarly 
used  by  the  people.  Hence  in  their  normal  state 
the  belongings  of  an  Israelite  homestead  should  be 
clean. 

On  the  other  hand,  as  aliens  and  foreign  lands  had 
no  sacred  character,  they  and  all  belonging  to  them 
are,  at  any  rate  in  some  measure,  unclean  (Josh, 
xxii.  19;  Hos.  ix.  3).  Moreover,  human  beings  are 
also  unclean  in  certain  states  and  circumstances. 
Cf.  §  21,  ii.  (b). 

ii.  The  Apparatus  of  Worship. — In  the  strict 
sense,  however,  sacred  objects  were  those  connected 
with  worship — the  buildings  erected  for  worship  at 
the  sacred  places;  the  Temj)le,  with  its  furniture, 
contents  and  belongings  ;  and  the  dress  and  ornaments 
of  the  priests.  The  Temple  (hekal  =  palace),  was,  as 
its  name  indicates,  the  palace  of  the  Divine  King  of 
Israel.  The  Most  Sacred  Place  is  the  royal  presence 
chamber,  where,  on  state  occasions,  He  gives  audience 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE    OF  JEHOVAH      157 

to  the  most  distinguished  of  His  subjects.  The  Sacred 
Place  suggests  a  royal  banqueting  hall  with  its  lamps 
and  perfume  of  incense,  and  its  table  spread  per- 
petually. The  shewbread  is,  no  doubt,  from  one 
point  of  view,  a  perpetual  offering  from  Israel  to 
Jehovah ;  but  as  the  royal  table  would  naturally  be 
spread  for  guests,  it  may  also  symbolise  Jehovah's 
continual  bounty  to  Israel.  The  material  of  sacrifice 
is  naturally  sacred,  and  as  it  represents  the  different 
kinds  of  food,  symbolises,  like  the  firstfruits  and 
firstlings,  the  consecration  of  cattle,  grain,  fruit,  and 
their  products  and  preparations.  Special  stress  is 
laid  upon  the  fat  and  the  blood.  The  parts  of  the 
zebah  offered  to  Jehovah  are  chiefly  the  fat,  probably 
because  of  their  choiceness,  possibly  also  because  they 
would  burn  well.  According  to  Lev.  xvii.  11,  etc., 
"  The  life  of  the  flesh  is  in  the  blood  :  and  I  have 
given  it  you  upon  the  altar  to  make  atonement  for 
your  lives :  for  it  is  the  blood  that  maketh  atonement 
by  reason  of  the  life."  The  blood  symbolised  the 
most  precious  offering  t*hat  could  be  made  to  Jehovah 
— the  life  of  a  living  creature. 

iii.  The  Ark  and  the  Mercy  Seat  (Exod. 
xxv. -xl. ;  Lev.  xvi. ;  Dent.  x.). — In  spite  of  the  close 
connection  between  these  two — the  mercy  seat  cover- 
ing the  ark — they  are  described  separately  in  the 
Pentateuch,  and  each  plays  its  own  part  in  the  ritual. 

The  real  importance  of  the  ark,  'aron — Noah's  ark 
and  the  ark  in  the  bulrushes  are  teba — belongs  to 
the  earlier  pre-prophetic  religion  of  Israel.  It  is 
referred  to  in  the  final  form  of  O.  T.  religion  as  a 
venerable  relic,  Ions*  since  lost.     The  tradition  of  its 


158  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

sanctity  is  still  preserved  and  even  serves  to  hallow 
the  empty  shrine,  which  replaces  that  in  which  the 
ark  dwelt.  It  was  above  all  else  the  symbol  of 
the  presence  of  Jehovah  with  Israel,  and  when  it 
was  lost  this  significance  was  transferred  to  the  Most 
Sacred  Place  itself  ;  but  neither  in  the  history  nor 
in  the  elaborate  descriptions  in  the  Pentateuch  is 
any  reason  given  why  the  ark  symbolised  the  Divine 
Presence. 

The  ark  was  in  the  form  of  a  sacred  chest,  such  as 
is  found  in  many  religions,  the  closest  parallel  being 
the  sacred  boats  of  the  Egyptians.  Until  the  time 
of  David  it  was  borne  in  sacred  processions,  and 
especially  was  carried  to  battle  to  symbolise  the 
presence  of  Jehovah  Sabaoth,  the  Divine  Ally  of 
Israel.  The  only  reference  to  the  ark  in  the  prophets 
is  Jer.  iii.  16:  "When  ye  are  multiplied  and 
increased  in  the  land,  saith  Jehovah,  '  The  ark  of  the 
Covenant  of  Jehovah  '  shall  no  longer  be  the  watch- 
word of  Israel :  men  shall  neither  think  of  the  ark 
nor  remember  it ;  they  shall  neither  miss  the  ark 
nor  make  another  in  its  place."  Evidently  the  ark 
was  lost,  and  the  prophet  desired  that  it  might  be 
consigned  to  oblivion. 

In  Deuteronomy  and  the  Levitical  law  the  special 
function  of  the  ark  is  to  contain  the  Tables  of  the 
covenant  of  Jehovah  with  Israel ;  thus  suggesting 
that  His  most  real  presence  with  His  people  was  to 
be  found  in  the  record  of  His  moral  revelation. 

The  name  of  the  mercy  seat — kapporeth — lends 
itself  to  two  meanings.  According  to  the  original 
and  literal  meaning  of  the  root  kpr,  it  may  mean 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      159 

cover — i.e.,  that  which  it  actually  was,  the  covering 
of  the  ark.  According  to  the  use  of  the  verbal  form 
kipper,  to  make  atonement,  it  may  mean  place  or 
means  of  atonement,  referring  to  the  fact  that  the 
mercy  seat  was  only  used  in  the  ritual,  in  connection 
with  the  services  of  the  Day  of  Atonement.  Probably 
the  literal  meaning  was  the  original,  and  the  second 
meaning  was  attached  to  the  name  as  the  result  of 
the  place  assigned  to  it  in  the  ritual.  As  the  Most 
Sacred  Place  is  the  royal  audience  chamber,  so  the 
mercy  seat  is  the  throne. 

iv.  Most  Sacred  Objects. — The  description  "most 
sacred  " — qodesh  qodashim — is  given  to  the  following  : 
— the  Tabernacle  and  its  furniture  (Exod.  xxx.  22-29), 
the  special  incense,  the  shewbread,  the  \csham,  the 
hattath,  the  priests' share  of  the  minha,  and  the  herem 
(A.  V.,  "  accursed  thing,"  P.V.,  "  devoted  thing  ").  The 
unique  sanctity  of  the  inner  chamber  of  the  sanctuary 
is  marked  by  the  use  of  the  still  more  definite  term 
Qodesh-  haq-  Qodashim. 

23.  The  Sanctity  of  Israel.— Thus  the  Levitical 
law  has  an  elaborate  and  complete  theory  of  the 
sanctity  of  Israel,  worked  out  with  scientific  pre- 
cision. Doubtless  it  would  be  entirely  symmetrical, 
but  for  the  persistence  of  ancient  customs  too  stubborn 
to  be  completely  adjusted  to  a  mathematical  diagram. 
But  we  greatly  wrong  the  law  if  we  do  not  constantly 
bear  in  mind  its  moral  presuppositions.  The  Penta- 
teuch makes  large  provision  for  personal  and  social 
righteousness ;  and  the  ceremonial  ordinances  assume 
that  the  national  life  approximately  corresponds  to 
this  high  standard. 


160  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

The  sacred  system  of  the  Pentateuch  may  be  com- 
pared to  a  pyramid,  whose  base  is  a  pentagon,  the 
five  sides  of  which  are  the  sacred  people,  the  sacred 
land,  the  sanctity  of  time  (sacred  seasons),  the  sanctity 
of  life  (sacred  acts),  and  the  sanctity  of  matter  (sacred 
objects).  From  these  base  lines,  there  is,  in  each 
case,  a  gradation  to  successively  smaller  classes,  with 
a  correspondingly  increased  sanctity,  till  the  pyramid 
reaches  its  apex  in  the  central  rite  of  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  the  entry  of  the  most  sacred  person,  the 
High  Priest,  into  the  Most  Sacred  Place,  on  the  most 
sacred  day,  and  the  performance  of  acts  combining 
the  most  sacred  acts  and  objects  of  the  ritual,  the 
offering  of  incense  before  the  ark,  and  the  sprinkling 
upon  the  mercy  seat. 

The  conditions  under  which  any  such  elaborate 
system  could  be  even  approximately  carried  out  did 
not  exist  till  the  restoration ;  under  the  monarchy 
the  religious  life  was  far  less  symmetrical  and  much 
more  simple  and  spontaneous.  Moreover,  the  very 
mission  of  the  prophets  implied  that  they  were 
indifferent  or  even  hostile  to  ritual.  The  law  itself 
assumes  that  national  righteousness  is  a  necessary 
antecedent  to  acceptable  ritual;  the  prophets'  work 
was  to  show  that  no  such  righteousness  existed  and 
to  induce  Israel  to  seek  after  it.  Till  their  work  was 
in  some  measure  accomplished  there  could  be  no 
question  of  perfect  ritual. 

24.  The  Preservation  and  Renewal  of  Sanctity. — 
The  Levitical  theory  of  Israel  is  that  the  whole 
nation  is  sacred.  Sin,  even  the  sin  of  an  individual, 
as  in  the  case  of  Achan,  destroys  the  sanctity  of  the 


ISRAEL   AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH      161 

nation  and  subjects  it  to  the  divine  wrath.  Hence, 
when  sin  has  been  committed  the  sanctity  of  the 
nation  must  be  restored  by  putting  away  the  sin. 
There  is  no  forgiveness  for  heinous  sins,  in  such  cases 
the  sanctity  of  the  nation  is  restored  by  cutting  off 
the  offender  from  Israel,  either  by  death  (Achan)  or 
by  some  unspecified  mode  of  excommunication.  The 
milder  penalty  was  developed  by  later  Judaism.  The 
punishment  of  "cutting  off"  is  threatened  against  the 
uncircumcised  Israelite  (Gen.  xvii.  14),  the  man  who 
eats  leavened  bread  during  the  Passover  (Exod. 
xii.  15,  19),  the  man  who  makes  for  profane  purposes 
imitations  of  the  sacred  oil  or  incense  (xxx.  33,  38), 
the  sabbath-breaker  (xxxi.  14),  those  who  take  part 
in  sacred  rites  in  a  state  of  uncleanness,  or  eat  blood 
or  the  part  of  a  sacrifice  which  should  be  burnt 
on  the  altar  (Lev.  vii.),  those  who  kill  sacrificial 
animals  or  sacrifice  elsewhere  than  at  the  central 
sanctuary  (xvii.),  those  who  are  guilty  of  certain 
sexual  offences  (xviii.,  xx.  17,  18),  or  worship  Moloch 
(xx.  1-6),  or  fail  to  observe  the  Day  of  Atonement 
(xxiii.  29),  or  the  Passover  (Num.  ix.  13);  the  un- 
clean person  who  fails  to  purify  himself  (xix.  13,  20), 
and  generally  any  one  who  is  guilty  of  "  presumptu- 
ous "  sin,  sin  "  with  a  high  hand  "  (beyad  rama). 

In  the  case  of  venial  sins,  the  sanctity  of  the  in- 
dividual or  the  nation  is  restored  by  hattath  or  \isham, 
Ilatta.th  is  prescribed  for  sins  committed  inadvertently 
(biekegaga,  Lev.  iv. ;  Num.  xv.  22-29).  'Asham  is 
prescribed  in  similar  cases,  and  also  specially  in  case  of 
any  infringing  or  withholding  of  the  rights  of  pro- 
perty of  man  or  God  (Lev.  v.-vii.). 

11 


162  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

Thus  the  ritual,  like  0,  T.  generally,  is  concerned 
for  "  hidden  sins  "  (Psalm  xix.  12),  sins  of  carelessness 
and  omission  committed  inadvertently.  The  case  of 
Achan  illustrates  a  practical  difficulty  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  principle — the  author  of  some  grievous  sin 
might  remain  undiscovered.  Achan  was  found  out 
through  the  lot,  but  the  law  does  not  treat  his  case 
as  a  precedent.  Deut.  xxi.  1-9  provides  a  special 
rite  to  cleanse  the  land  from  the  guilt  of  sins  com- 
mitted by  some  person  or  persons  unknown.  A 
heifer's  neck  was  to  be  broken  over  running  water,  in 
a  desolate  valley.  The  elders  of  the  nearest  city  were 
to  wash  their  hands  over  it,  in  the  presence  of  the 
priests,  and  to  disclaim  any  knowledge  of  the  crime 
and  ask  forgiveness  for  the  nation.  They  were  also 
to  pray  that  Jehovah  may  not  "  suffer  innocent  blood 
to  remain  in  the  midst  of  Thy  people  Israel."  As  in 
Deut.  xix.  13,  "  innocent  blood  "  is  "  put  away  "  from 
Israel  by  slaying  the  murderer,  this  last  prayer 
is  probably  a  petition  that  Jehovah  will  purge  Israel 
of  the  guilt  of  this  murder  by  Himself  slaying  the 
murderer. 

But  sacrifices  could  only  be  offered  for  specific  sins 
of  inadvertence,  when  the  sinner  had  become  aware 
of  them ;  and  many  sins  must  have  remained  per- 
manently "  hidden  "  from  the  sinner.  Moreover  the 
very  commission  as  well  as  the  author  of  heinous 
crimes  might  remain  unknown.  Provision  for  the 
atonement  for  such  sins  is  doubtless  made  in  the 
hattaths  appointed  for  the  various  feasts;  or  indi- 
viduals, as  in  Job  i.  5,  might  offer  sacrifices  to  atone 
for  unknown  sins ;  but  the  special  atonement  for  sins, 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE  OF  JEHOVAH      163 

which  had  not  been  otherwise  dealt  with,  was  made 
on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  when  a  hattath  was  offered 
to  make  "  atonement  for  the  sanctuary,  because  of 
the  uncleanness  of  the  Israelites,  and  because  of  their 
transgressions,  pesha,  in  all  their  sins,  hattath,  and 
the  scapegoat  carried  away  the  iniquities,  \iwon,  of 
Israel  into  the  wilderness. 

Here  again  the  prophets  dealt  with  a  condition  of 
things,  in  which  there  was  no  question  of  restoring 
the  sanctity  of  Isiael  by  atoning  for  venial  sins  and 
slaying  or  excommunicating  grievous  offenders.  The 
whole  nation  was  unclean.  Nevertheless,  the  principle 
of  cutting  off  offenders  is  applied  to  the  whole  nation, 
which  is  to  be  destroyed,  and  this  destruction  is  to 
serve  as  a  purification  which  may  secure  the  sanctity 
of  a  New  Israel  in  succeeding  generations.  Jehovah 
Himself  purges  away  filth  and  guilt  till  every  one  left 
in  Jerusalem  is  sacred  (Isa.  iv.  3,  4). 

25.  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice.  —  Questions  naturally 
arise  first  as  to  how  sacrifices  served  to  secure  the 
sanctity  of  Israel,  and  second  as  to  what  was  the 
O.  T.  doctrine  of  sacrifice.  We  cannot  wholly  answer 
either  of  these  questions.  It  would  not  be  a  gross 
exaggeration  to  say  that  the  0.  T.  lays  down  no  doc- 
trine of  sacrifice.  Certain  rites  are  commanded  for 
given  purposes,  but  the  0.  T.  gives  little  or  no  reason 
for  the  rites,  and  states  no  theory  of  the  ritual. 
The  scriptural  doctrine  of  sacrifice  is  mainly  to  be 
found  in  the  N.  T.,  and  is,  for  the  most  part,  either 
adapted  from  post-biblical  Judaism  or  had  its  origin 
in  the  N.  T.  revelation  ;  it  therefore  belongs  chiefly 
to   N.    T.    theology.       We   must,    however,    consider 


164  JEHOVAH  AND  ISfiAEL 

certain  doctrines  which  the  0.   T.  states  or  implies 
with  regard  to  sacrifice. 

(a)  Sacrifice  not  characteristic  of  the  religion  of  Israel. 
— Though  sacrifice  was  appointed  for  Israel  by 
divine  revelation,  it  did  not  originate  in  this  0.  T. 
revelation.  God  took  a  universal  and  familiar  rite 
and  ordained  it  as  a  form  of  worship  for  His  people. 
Many  of  the  sacrifices  and  much  of  their  connected 
ritual  were  similarly  derived.  0.  T.  betrays  no  con- 
sciousness that  its  sacrifices  in  their  main  external 
features,  were  essentially  different  from  some  of  those 
offered  by  the  heathen  around.  Deut.  xxxii.  38 
speaks  of  Israel  offering  zebah  and  nesek  to  strange 
gods;  in  2  Kings  hi  27,  the  king  of  Moab  sacrifices 
a  human  'ola,  and  in  v.  17  Naaman  declares  that  he 
will  offer  'ola  and  zebah  to  Jehovah  alone.  Hence, 
the  original  meaning  and  ground  of  much  sacrificial 
ritual  is  antecedent  to  the  Mosaic  revelation. 

(b)  Moral  Conditions  of  Acceptable  Sacrifice. — The 
prophets  and  psalmists  constantly  repudiate  the  idea 
that  sacrifices  have  any  value  apart  from  true  moral 
and  spiritual  life.  The  language  of  the  prophets  does 
not  mean  that  they  denounced  such  observances ;  but 
whereas  popular  superstition  regarded  sacrifice  as  the 
most  important  of  divine  requirements,  and  as  effi- 
cacious apart  from  the  life  and  character  of  the 
offerer,  the  prophets  assigned  to  sacrifice  an  entirely 
subordinate  place  in  the  religious  life. 

(c)  The  Symbolism  of  Sacrifice. — We  have  thus 
seen  that  a  sacrifice,  according  to  O.  T  revelation — 
as  distinct  from  its  original  heathen  sense  and  from 
the  value  constantly  assigned  to  it  by  popular  Jewish 


ISRAEL  AS  PEOPLE   OF  JEHOVAH     165 

superstition — was  a  symbol  and  not  an  opus  operation  ; 
but  we  may  ask,  in  the  absence  of  any  revealed  0.  T. 
interpretation,  how  far  these  symbols  speak  for  them- 
selves. Their  meaning  might  be  so  obvious  that  we 
should  be  able  to  see  at  once  how  they  must  have 
been  understood  by  devout  Israelites.  Such  a  hypo- 
thesis, however,  is  discredited  by  the  many  conflicting 
interpretations  put  forward  with  equal  confidence. 
Hence,  again,  we  must  repeat— on  the  authority 
of  N.  T.  itself,  1  Peter  i.  10-12— that  the  N.  T. 
interpretation  of  O.  T.  ordinances  and  teaching  was 
not  necessarily  known  to  ancient  Israel  or  part  of 
0.  T.  revelation. 

We  may,  however,  indicate  some  of  the  more 
obvious  suggestions  of  the  symbolism  of  sacrifice. 

i.  The  custom  of  the  zebah  shelamim  that  the 
victim  should  be  partly  consumed  on  the  altar,  partly 
eaten  by  the  priests,  and  partly  by  the  offerer, 
symbolises  friendly  fellowship  between  Jehovah  and 
His  worshippers. 

ii.  All  forms  of  sacrifice,  being  gifts  or  offerings, 
would  naturally  express  gratitude  to  a  benefactor; 
or  obligation — by  way  of  tribute — to  a  sovereign  ;  or 
propitiation  of  an  injured  or  offended  lord. 

iii.  The  death  of  the  animal  was  necessarily 
involved  in  a  feast  upon  its  flesh,  zebah  shelamim. 
In  the  case  of  other  sacrifices,  death  was  the  most 
striking  way  in  which  the  owner  could  at  once  part 
with  his  property  and  symbolise  its  reception  by 
God.  The  blood,  being  regarded  as  the  vehicle  of 
the  life,  is  reserved  for  Jehovah. 

iv.  Laying  on  of  hands  is  common  to  all  sacrifices 


166  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 


h  sh.,  Lev.  iii.  2;  'ola,  Lev.  i.  4;  hattath,  Lev.  iv.  4, 
etc. ;  it  is  not  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  'asham, 
but  is  doubtless  covered  by  Lev.  vii.  7).  It  cannot, 
therefore,  specially  symbolise  the  atoning  value  of 
sacrifice,  but  rather  the  ownership  of  the  animal  by 
the  offerer  and  his  delivery  of  it  to  the  priest  as  the 
representative  of  Jehovah. 

v.  The  Ritual  for  Atonement. — To  say  that  the 
main  significance  of  all  sacrifice  was  its  virtue  as 
atoning  for  sin  would  be  an  exaggeration,  but  yet 
the  exaggeration  of  a  truth.  Any  offering,  whether 
as  gift  or  tribute,  was  a  natural  expression  of  the 
sense  of  sin  and  the  desire  for  reconciliation  with 
God.  Accordingly,  it  is  said  in  Lev.  i.  4  that 
the  'ola  shall  be  accepted  to  make  atonement  (cf. 
Ezek.  xlv.  15-17).  But  the  hattath  and  'ola,  and 
the  rites  of  the  Day  of  Atonement,  were  specially 
appointed  to  reconcile  the  sinner  to  God.  The  features 
peculiar  to  this  ritual  and  therefore  specially  sym- 
bolising the  method  and  conditions  by  which  God 
received  the  sinner  to  His  mercy,  are  the  sprinkling 
of  blood  before  the  veil  and  the  placing  of  it  on  the 
horns  of  the  altar  of  incense,  and  the  burning  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  hattath  without  the  camp 
(cf.  iv.  46).  The  ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement 
is,  for  the  most  part,  a  multiplication  and  expansion 
of  these  two  acts.  Special  hattaths  are  offered,  and 
the  blood  is  sprinkled,  not  merely  in  the  Sacred 
Place,  but  even  upon  the  "  mercy  seat "  in  the 
Most  Sacred  Place.  The  other  peculiar  features  of 
this  day's  ritual  are  that  it  is  the  only  fast  appointed 
by  the  law,  and  that  beside  the  goat  of  the  hattath, 


ISRAEL   AS   PEOPLE  OF  JEHOVAH      107 

a  goat  "  for  Azazel "  bears  away  the  sins  of  the  people 
into  the  wilderness. 

The  explanation  of  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  is 
given  in  Lev.  xvii.  2,  when  the  blood  is  said  to 
11  make  atonement,"  hopper.  The  exact  force  of  the 
term  is  matter  of  much  controversy.  Kpr  means 
originally  cover,  and  the  atoning  ritual  is  usually 
explained  as  covering  sin,  or  the  person  or  thing 
contaminated  by  sin  or  uncleanness,  from  the  awful 
exposure  to  Jehovah's  holiness*  (Isa.  vi.).  Smend 
(p.  321),  however,  considers  that  hpr  in  the 
Levitical  law  does  not  refer  back  to  the  original 
sense  of  the  root,  but  is  formed  afresh  as  a  denomi- 
native from  kopher,  ransom  or  atoning  payment. 
None  of  the  explanations  of  hopper  make  it  clear 
how  the  life  of  the  victim  avails  to  restore  the 
Israelite  to  that  normal  state  of  sanctity  in  which  he 
enjoys  full  religious  privileges.  A  common  explana- 
tion— derived  from  the  N.  T. — is  that  the  death  of 
the  animal  symbolises,  and  is  accepted  as  a  substitute 
for,  the  forfeited  life  of  the  sinner.  However  appro- 
priate this  view  may  be  in  the  light  of  the  N.  T. 
history,  and  especially  when  sacrifices  are  considered 
as  types  of  Christ's  death,  such  an  interpretation  is 
nowhere  explicitly  furnished  by  0.  T.  itself,  and  is 
only  suggested  in  Isa.  liii.  10. 

Lev.  xvi.  21,  22  explains  the  burning  of  the  hattath 
without  the  camp,  and  the  driving  away  of  the  scape- 
goat, as  symbolising  the  putting  away  of  sin  from 
within  the  bounds  of  Israel. 

*  Cave,  Scripture  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice,  .">14.  Sehultz, 
i.  398. 


168  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

The  meaning  of  "  for  Azazel "  is  one  of  the  unsolved 
enigmas  of  0.  T. ;  it  has  been  variously  explained  as 
meaning  "  for  sending  away  "  ;  or  the  goat  itself ;  or 
the  place  to  which  it  was  sent ;  or  some  evil  spirit. 
It  has  been  held  to  be  a  relic  of  pre-Mosaic  ritual 
adopted  into  the  Levitical  law.* 

In  spite,  however,  of  our  ignorance  as  to  the  origin 
and  primitive  meaning  of  many  details  of  the  ritual, 
its  broad  and  essential  significance  is  clear.  The 
atoning  sacrifices  express  on  the  one  hand  man's  sense 
of  guilt,  of  the  heinousness  of  sin,  and  on  the  other 
hand  God's  hatred  of  sin,  His  refusal  to  tolerate  it, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  His  willingness  to  forgive  the 
penitent.  The  special  offering  on  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment of  a  sacrifice  for  Israel  by  the  High  Priest  as 
the  representative  of  the  nation  is  recognised  by  N.  T. 
as  a  type  of  the  sacrifice  made  for  the  world  by  Christ 
as  the  representative  of  mankind. 

vi.  Sacrifice  as  a  Positive  Divine  Ordinance. — 
O.  T.  constantly  states  as  the  main  reason  for  sacrifice 
and  the  guarantee  of  its  efficacy,  the  fact  that  it  is 
a  divinely  appointed  means  of  grace.  Sacrifices  are 
to  be  offered  because  Jehovah  had  so  commanded; 
they  will  obtain  His  favour  and  forgiveness  because 
He  had  so  promised. 

*  For  details  of  various  theories  see  Cave,  521, 


CHAPTER   VI 

JEHOVAH  AND    THE  ISRAELITE 


CHAPTER   VI 

JEHOVAH    AND   THE    ISRAELITE 

26.  The  Nation  and  the  Individual. — In  con- 
sidering 0.  T. 'teaching  as  to  personal  religion,  we 
must  always  bear  in  mind  that  O.  T.  deals  mainly 
with  the  nation,  and,  in  most  of  its  documents, 
approaches  all  questions  from  this  standpoint.  Even 
in  Psalms  which  seem  at  first  sight  individualistic, 
the  author  is  often  identifying  himself  with  his 
people.  While  the  principles  of  righteousness,  sin, 
retribution,  and  redemption  are  the  same  for  a 
nation  and  an  individual,  the  statement  of  doctrine 
in  the  two  cases  is  very  different.  Many  doctrines  of 
national  life  can  be  applied  to  the  individual  with 
slight  modification;  in  other  cases  the  form  of  the 
doctrine  must  be  wholly  changed,  and,  in  any  case, 
the  application  requires  great  care. 

For  the  most  part  the  relation  of  the  Israelite  to 
Jehovah  was  mediated  through  Israel.  Divine  favour 
to  Israel  in  the  shape  of  fertility,  prosperity  and 
victory  redounded  to  the  advantage  of  the  individual, 
and  conversely  the  individual  suffered  under  the 
chastisements  inflicted  upon  Israel.  But  the  corres- 
pondence of  individual  and  national  fortunes  had 
many  important  exceptions,  and  by  no  means  involved 

171 


172  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

any  invariable  and  exact  punishment  and  reward  of 
individual  character  and  conduct.  Israel  might 
suffer  for  its  sins  and  be  rewarded  for  its  virtue,  but 
the  righteous  man  suffered  in  the  ruin  of  the  nation 
and  was  not  always  blessed  in  its  prosperity ;  while 
conversely  the  sinner  might  sometimes  escape  the  one 
and  would  generally  enjoy  the  other.  The  ultimate 
theory  of  national  sanctity  meets  this  difficulty  by 
providing  that  the  Israelite  who  fell  into  deadly  sin 
should  be  cut  off  by  death  or  expulsion,  but  this 
principle  could  never  be  fully  applied  in  practice. 

Moreover,  as  a  rule,  the  religious  life  of  the 
individual  was  mediated  through  the  nation  and  its 
representatives.  He  worshipped  through  the  priest 
or  king ;  the  national  ritual  of  the  Day  of  Atonement 
was  the  regular  method  by  which  he  received 
assurance  of  reconciliation  to  God ;  his  knowledge  of 
the  divine  will  came  to  him  through  the  priest,  the 
prophet,  or  the  national  tradition. 

On  the  other  hand  the  sanctity  and  righteousness 
of  Israel  were,  so  to  speak,  the  integration  of  these 
virtues  in  the  individual ;  and  in  theory  the  sanctity 
of  Israel  was  annulled  by  a  single  individual  sin,  as 
in  the  case  of  Achan.  Hence  national  righteousness 
is  only  partly  manifested  in  the  public  ritual ;  it  is  for 
the  most  part  built  up  out  of  the  righteous  lives  of 
individuals;  and  we  have  now  to  consider  in  what 
this  righteousness  consisted,  and  how  it  was  main- 
tained and  restored.  For  illustrations  of  personal 
religion  we  naturally  have  to  look,  for  the  most  part, 
to  the  national  leaders,  judges,  kings,  and  prophets; 
because  history  is  mainly  occupied  with  such  char- 


JEHOVAH  AND   THE   ISRAELITE       173 

acters.    The  priests  are  seldom  personally  conspicuous ; 
the  individual  is  lost  in  the  office. 

27.  Individual  Righteousness  consisted  in  obedience 
to  the  revealed  will  of  God,  as  expressed  in  legal 
ordinances  and  prophetic  exhortations.  These  authori- 
ties covered  the  whole  religious,  personal,  and 
social  life  of  the  Israelite.  They  enjoined  the 
worship  of  Jehovah  according  to  the  pure  ritual  of 
the  law,  and  abstention  from  the  worship  of  other 
gods,  or  from  unauthorised  modes  of  worshipping 
Jehovah.  They  inculcated  personal  cleanliness  and 
purity,  and  a  careful  respect  for  the  rights  of  others, 
especially  of  parents  and  kinsfolk.  Moreover,  apart 
from  legal  and  family  claims,  the  Israelite  is  com- 
manded to  help  the  poor  and  any  who  are  in  distress. 
It  is  sinful  to  neglect  an  opportunity  of  saving  even 
an  enemy  from  accidental  loss  :  "  If  thou  meet  thine 
enemy's  ox  or  ass  going  astray,  thou  shalt  surely 
bring  it  back  to  him  again  "  (Exod.  xxiii.  4).  The 
law  shows  a  certain  care  for  the  interests  of  foreigners, 
and  even  of  dumb  animals  ;  and  if  the  standard  of 
conduct  towards  slaves,  women,  and  foreigners  falls 
below  that  of  later  times,  we  have  our  Lord's 
authority  for  admitting  that  0.  T.  legislation  made 
concessions  to  the  hardness  of  Jewish  hearts  (Matt, 
xix.  8).  Summaries  of  the  moral  requirements  of 
Jehovah  are  found  in  the  Decalogue  (Exod.  xx.),  the 
Book  of  the  Covenant  (xxi. -xxiii.),  and  the  law  of 
holiness  (Lev.  xvii.-xxvi.)  ;  and  the  subject  is 
further  illustrated  by  such  pictures  as  those  of  the 
righteous  man  in  Job  xxix.,  and  the  virtuous  woman 
in    Pro  v.   xxxi.    10-31.     A  representative   passage  is 


174  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

Ezek.  xviii.  5-9,  "But  if  a  man  be  just  and  do 
that  which  is  lawful  and  right,  and  hath  not  eaten 
upon  the  mountain  " — i.e.,  engaged  in  forbidden  and 
possibly  idolatrous  rites — "  neither  hath  lifted  up  his 
eyes  to  the  idols  of  the  house  of  Israel,  nor  defiled  his 
neighbour's  wife,  nor  come  near  to  a  woman  in  her 
separation;  and  hath  not  wronged  any,  but  hath 
restored  to  the  debtor  his  pledge,  hath  spoiled  none 
by  violence,  hath  given  his  bread  to  the  hungry,  and 
hath  covered  the  naked  with  a  garment ;  he  that 
hath  not  given  forth  upon  usury,  nor  taken  interest ; 
that  hath  withdrawn  his  hand  from  iniquity,  hath 
executed  true  judgment  between  man  and  man,  hath 
walked  in  My  statutes,  and  hath  kept  My  judgments, 
to  deal  truly :  he  is  just  and  shall  surely  live,  saith 
the  Lord  Jehovah."  This  description  of  the  just  man, 
with  its  combination  of  ritual  and  morality,  of 
positive  and  negative  virtue,  corresponds  very  fairly 
to  the  general  tenor  of  O.  T.  teaching  as  to  conduct. 
It  is  often  said  that  0.  T.  righteousness  is  unduly 
negative,  a  view  perhaps  largely  based  upon  the  "  thou 
shalt  nots  "  of  the  Decalogue,  but  this  objection  is 
not  sustained  by  an  exhaustive  examination. 

Moreover,  O.  T.  righteousness  is  by  no  means 
confined  to  external  conduct,  it  extends  also  to 
character  and  motive.  Hatred,  envy,  malice,  and 
covetousness  are  denounced,  and  the  Israelite  is  "to 
love  his  neighbour  "  as  himself  (Lev.  xix.  18).  He  is 
moreover  to  love  God  with  all  his  heart  and  soul  and 
might,  and  to  keep  His  commandments  in  his  heart 
(Deut.  vi.  5).  Trust  or  faith  in  God,  reverence, 
godly  fear,   humility,  and   gratitude   are   constantly 


JEHOVAH   AND    THE  ISRAELITE       175 

inculcated.  Meekness  or  humility  ('anawa)  is  especially 
singled  out  in  the  later  literature  as  a  characteristic 
virtue  of  the  true  believer. 

The  0.  T.  ideal  of  righteousness  is  most  concisely 
expressed  in  the  words  of  Micah  vi.  8  :  "lie  hath 
showed  thee,  0  man,  what  is  good:  and  what  doth 
the  Lord  require  of  thee,  but  to  do  justly,  and  love 
mercy,  and  walk  humbly  with  thy  God." 

28.  Sin. — All  sin  is  essentially  disobedience  to  God, 
transgression  of  His  commandments,  failure  to  con- 
form to  the  divine  standard  of  righteousness.  Sin 
may  be  regarded  from  different  points  of  view,  and 
sins  may  be  divided  into  several  classes.  There  are 
various  terms  for  sin,  sinful,  and  to  sin,  corresponding 
to  these  classes  and  points  of  view  :  ra  (E.V.,  "evil  ") 
is  used  in  a  perfectly  general  sense,  like  the  Eng. 
equivalent;  het,  hattatJ/,  hatta'a  (E.V.,  "sin")  regard 
sin  as  a  missing  of  the  mark,  or  of  the  right  way,  the 
opposite  of  a  straight  (yashar)  course  of  conduct;  rasha 
(E.V.,  "  wicked  ")  is  used  of  those  who  do  not  conform 
to  the  divine  law,  the  class  contrasted  with  the 
"  righteous,"  gaddiq ;  the  cognate  nouns  denote  the 
quality  of  such  sin,  and  the  verb  hirshia  denotes 
"  declare  guilty,"  in  opposition  to,  hiediq,  "  declare 
innocent"  :  peslid  (E.V.,  "  transgression  ")  denotes  re- 
bellion against  God;  'awon  (E.V.,  "iniquity")  like  het 
originally  denoted  crooked  conduct,  and  came  to  be 
used  of  guilt  or  a  state  of  sinfulness.  These  and 
similar  terms  emphasise  the  essential  characteristics 
of  sin — disobedience,  and  hostility  to  God. 

Other  terms  regard  sin  as  ignorance  and  foolish- 
ness.    In  Isa.  v.  13,  and  Hosea  iv.  6,  it  is  the  lack 


176  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

of  knowledge  which  has  involved  Israel  in  ruinous 
sin.  Accordingly  the  sinner  is  constantly  spoken  of  as 
nabal,  "  fool,"  and  sin  as  nebala,  "  folly."  Similarly  sin 
is  empty  and  futile,  'awen  (E.V.,  "  iniquity  ")  nothing- 
ness ;  and  essentially  false.  Such  ignorance  and  folly 
issue  in  pride — a  sin  upon  which  the  0.  T.  frequently 
dwells,  providing  distinct  terms  for  its  several  varieties 
— and  in  mocking,  scornful  contempt  for  God  and 
His  faithful  servants.  The  leg  (E.V.,  "  scorner  ")  is 
the  standing  title  of  the  sinner  in  Proverbs. 

Other  terms,  again,  regard  sin  as  wrong  done  to 
man,  especially  hamas  (E.V.,  "  violence.")  Under  this 
head  come  the  terms  for  the  various  offences  against 
social  order  and  decency,  murder,  theft,  fraud, 
adultery,  and  other  sexual  crimes,  false  witness  and 
other  forms  of  lying,  and  cruelty. 

Moreover  sin,  like  righteousness,  is  a  quality  of 
character  as  well  as  conduct ;  many  of  the  above 
terms — e.g.,  pride,  folly,  etc.,  apply  to  inner  disposition 
as  well  as  to  external  acts.  Persistent  sinfulness  is 
spoken  of  as  a  hardening  or  stubbornness  of  the 
heart. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  ritual,  sins  are  classed 
as  (a)  "  hidden  sins,"  done  through  inadvertence,  for 
which  ritual  atonement  could  be  made ;  and  (b)  pre- 
sumptuous or  deliberate  sins,  for  which  no  such 
atonement  was  possible.* 

29.  Rewards  and  Punishments. — Without  attempt- 
ing any  formal  statement  of  the  relations  of  human 
freedom  and  divine  sovereignty,  0.  T.  always  takes 

*  For  a  full  statement  of  the  various  terms  for  sin  and 
sins,  see  Schultz,  ii.,  281 ;    Oehler,  i.,  231. 


JEHOVAH  AXD   THE  ISRAELITE       177 

for  granted  the  responsibility  of  man  for  his  actions, 
and  teaches  that  righteousness  will  be  rewarded  and 
sin  punished.  As  the  0.  T.  deals  almost  exclusively 
with  the  present  life,  these  rewards  and  punishments 
mostly  take  the  form  of  material  loss  or  prosperity, 
a  failure  of  crops  or  fertility,  poverty  or  wealth, 
sickness  or  health,  defeat  or  victory,  a  short  or  long 
life,  childlessness  or  a  large  family.  Yet  many 
passages  describe  the  highest  good  as  fellowship  with 
God  and  the  sense  of  His  approval,  and  regard  the 
loss  of  these  blessings  as  the  severest  punishment. 
Hence  sometimes  temporal  misfortunes  are  deplored, 
not  so  much  on  account  of  physical  pain  and  material 
loss,  as  because  they  are  regarded  as  signs  of  the 
divine  displeasure. 

30.  Forgiveness.  Minor  sins  were  forgiven  on  con- 
dition of  the  offering  of  suitable  sacrifices  ;  such  rites 
involved  confession,  and  doubtless  implied  repentance 
and  amendment.  The  Levitical  law  does  not  pro- 
vide any  atonement  for  deliberate  and  heinous  sins. 
Similarly  many  passages  in  the  prophets  declare  that 
Israel  and  Judah  are  beyond  forgiveness  and  must  be 
cut  off.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  sin  is  unpardon- 
able because  of  persistence  in  exceptional  wickedness. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  doctrine  of  the  restoration  of 
Israel  and  Judah  implies  that  even  such  punishment 
is  not  final,  the  nation  survives  its  ruin  and  rises 
again  from  its  ashes.  Thus  we  obtain  a  cycle  of  sin, 
punishment,  ruin,  forgiveness,  restoration,  which 
illustrates  the  ancient  Israelite  doctrine  that  sin  is 
atoned  for  by  punishment,  and  does  not  finally  alienate 
from    God ;    thus  if  the  sinner  ceases  to   persist   in 

12 


178  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

his  wickedness,  he  may,  after  due  punishment,  be 
restored  to  favour  with  God.  So  in  Isa.  xl.  2, 
Jerusalem  is  forgiven  when  she  has  received  at  the 
hand  of  Jehovah  double  for  all  her  sins.  This  is 
represented  in  the  Levitical  law  by  its  treatment  of 
venial  sins.  In  the  history,  Moses  is  punished  for  his 
pride  in  striking  of  the  rock,  David  for  the  murder  of 
Uriah,  and  Manasseh  for  his  apostasy,  but  even  these 
heinous  sins  do  not  finally  exclude  from  forgiveness. 
In  such  cases  forgiveness  is  in  no  way  connected  with 
any  ritual  observances.  Such  examples  and  teaching 
intimate  that  no  sin,  however  grievous,  irrevocably 
withdraws  the  nation  or  the  individual  from  the  grace 
of  Jehovah.  The  conditions  of  forgiveness  are,  there- 
fore, for  venial  sins,  the  absence  of  deliberate  intent, 
confession,  repentance,  amendment  and  the  observance 
of  prescribed  ritual.  In  the  case  of  heinous  sins,  the 
offender  may  be  punished  with  death,  and  so  pass 
beyond  the  range  of  the  O.  T.  teaching  as  to  forgive- 
ness ;  but  even  heinous  sins  may  be  forgiven,  after 
punishment,  if  the  sinner  repents  and  amends  his 
life. 

Two  passages,  however,  transcend  these  doctrines. 
In  Isa.  liii.  the  vicarious  sufferings  of  the  Righteous 
One  secure  forgiveness  for  sinners.  In  Ezek.  xxxvi. 
25,  26,  repentance  and  amendment  appear  as  the  result 
of  forgiveness :  as  in  Rom.  ii.  4,  "  the  goodness  of  God 
leadeth  thee  to  repentance  "  (cf .  Wisdom  xi.  23). 

31.  Spiritual  Gifts. — In  spite  of  the  theoretic 
sanctity  of  Israel,  religion  always  found  the  individual 
burdened  with  guilt  and  under  the  influence  of  sinful 
propensities.     Its  first  task  was  to  lead  him  to  re- 


JEHOVAH  AND   THE  ISRAELITE       170 

pentance  and  amendment,  and  then  to  foster  and 
develop  his  righteousness.  As  one  instrument  in 
such  operations  the  O.  T.  recognises  the  free  activity 
of  the  human  will ;  it  constantly  appeals  to  man  to 
repent  and  amend,  and  therefore  assumes  that  he  is 
able  to  do  so — e.g.,  Ezek.  xviii.  30,  31,  "  Repent  and 
turn  from  all  your  transgressions ;  so  iniquity  shall 
not  be  your  ruin.  Cast  away  from  all  your  trans- 
gressions, wherein  ye  have  transgressed  ;  and  make 
you  a  new  heart  and  a  new  spirit ;  for  why  will  ye 
die,  0  house  of  Israel  ? "  Thus,  from  one  point  of 
view,  repentance  is  an  act  of  the  human  will,  whose 
freedom  itself  is  ultimately  a  divine  gift.  Yet  from 
another  point  of  view,  it  is  Jehovah  who  gives  His 
people  one  heart  and  one  way  that  they  may  fear 
Him  for  ever,  and  puts  His  fear  in  their  hearts  that 
they  may  not  depart  from  Him  for  ever  (Jer.  xxxii. 
39,  40).  The  spiritual  act  which  combines  human 
volition  and  divine  working  is  faith,  in  which  man 
yields  himself  to  the  redeeming  and  regenerating 
influence  of  God.  The  familiar  attitudes  ascribed  to 
the  believer  in  the  0.  T.  of  trusting  in  Jehovah  and 
in  His  word,  of  waiting  and  hoping  for  His  salvation, 
imply  a  dependence  on,  and  surrender  to,  the  will  of 
God,  which  are  the  essence  of  that  faith,  through 
which  divine  grace  controls  the  soul.  The  revelation 
of  God  to  Israel,  His  dealings  with  His  people,  and 
the  divinely  appointed  ordinances  of  Israelite  religion 
all  served  to  inspire  the  believer  with  faith,  hope,  and 
love  towards  Jehovah. 

32.  Apparent  Failure  of  Divine  Justice. — This  is 
the  great  theme  of  0.  T.  speculation,  the  difficulty 


180  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

which  drove  inspired  men  to  the  verge  of  scepticism, 
and  even  seemed  to  place  them  in  antagonism  to  the 
very  axioms  of  0.  T.  revelation.  Their  discussions 
dealt  with  a  very  limited  and  special  aspect  of  the 
general  problem  of  the  origin  and  existence  of  material 
and  moral  evil.  Moral  evil  in  men,  possibly  also  in 
supernatural  beings,  was  accepted  as  a  fact,  with- 
out any  serious  attempt  (cf.  §  34)  to  explain  its 
origin  or  reconcile  its  existence  with  the  moral 
government  of  God.  God  was  recognised  as  the 
author  of  material  evil,  and  as  prosperity  and  success 
were  the  rewards  of  virtue,  so  suffering  was  the 
punishment  of  sin.  Hence,  a  doctrine  of  suffering 
prevailed  which  might  be  formulated  thus :  As  all 
virtue  is  rewarded  by  corresponding  blessings,  so  all 
sin  is  punished  by  an  accurately  adjusted  amount  of 
suffering.  A  logic,  which  was  perhaps  technically 
accurate,  drew  the  further  conclusion  that  all  pros- 
perity is  the  reward  and  token  of  virtue,  and  all 
suffering  is  the  just  penalty  of  some  present  or 
previous  sin.  This  proposition  is  insisted  on  by 
Job's  friends,  and  is  confirmed  in  the  epilogue  to 
Job,  in  which  his  integrity  is  manifested  by  his 
restoration  to  more  than  his  former  prosperity. 
Similarly  in  Psalm  lxvi.  18,  the  Psalmist  is  convinced 
of  his  innocence,  not  because  he  has  a  clear  conscience, 
but  because  his  prayer  has  been  answered  ;  if  he  had 
regarded  iniquity  in  his  htart  the  Lord  would  not 
have  heard  him,  but  God  had  heard  him. 

The  difficulties  of  such  a  theory  were  aggravated 
for  the  Israelite  by  the  limited  range  of  his  specula- 
tions  on    divine   retribution.       For   him   the   divine 


JEllolMI   AND   THE  ISRAELITE       181 

rewards  of  conduct  chiefly  consisted  of  prosperity,  a 
long  life,  a  large  and  prosperous  family.  Under  such 
circumstances,  very  slight  observation  and  experience 
showed  that,  primd  facie,  facts  did  not  bear  out  the 
theory.  The  wicked  flourished,  the  righteous  came 
to  ruin.  How  then  was  it  possible  to  "  justify  the 
ways  of  God  to  man  "  ? 

The  difficulty  existed,  in  some  measure,  even  in 
regard  to  the  nation.  National  prosperity  did  not 
always  vary  directly  with  national  righteousness, 
and,  especially  after  the  return,  Israel  often  felt 
itself  an  innocent  sufferer  at  the  hands  of  powerful 
and  prosperous  nations  of  inferior  religion  and 
morality.  The  difficulty  admitted  of  two  explana- 
tions :  the  nation  might  be  suffering  for  the  sins  of 
individuals,  like  Achan,  or,  for  the  sins  of  its 
forefathers.  Future  salvation  and  prosperity  might 
redress  the  balance,  exhibit  the  even  justice  of  God, 
and  justify  Israel  to  the  world.  This  problem,  however, 
peculiarly  concerned  the  individual,  who  looked  for 
the  just  reward  of  his  conduct  and  the  vindication  of 
his  character  within  the  narrow  limits  of  an  earthly 
life.  For  him  the  difficulty  often  became  a  constant 
and  intolerable  burden,  and  O.  T.  theology  wrestled 
with  this  problem  for  its  very  existence. 

Naturally  the  formal  discussion  of  the  problem  does 
not  make  its  appearance  in  literature  in  the  earliest 
days  of  the  history  of  Israel.  Indeed,  at  all  times, 
and  especially  in  the  dawn  of  religion,  the  sense  of 
the  impenetrable  mystery  of  the  divine  character  and 
dealings  prevented  men  from  appreciating  the  logical 
consequences  of  a  belief  in  the  moral  nature  of  God. 


182  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

Thus  the  speeches  of  the  Almighty  in  the  Book  of 
Job  appeal  to  the  self-distrustful  reverence  which 
shrinks  from  measuring  God  by  the  footrule  of  the 
human  understanding.  Yet  the  Holy  Spirit  does  not 
allow  men  to  rest  in  blind  submission  to  apparent 
injustice,  but  ever  arouses  them  afresh  to  an  in- 
spired curiosity,  or  even  scepticism,  that  prepares 
the  way  for  further  revelation.  Accordingly  0.  T. 
returns  again  and  again  to  the  discussion  of  this 
perpetual  question. 

One  partial  solution  was  suggested  by  another  aspect 
of  the  mvstery  of  the  divine  will.  Man  has  only  a 
very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  absolute  or  divine 
standard  of  morality.  "  Who  can  understand  his 
errors  ?  "  "I  know  nothing  against  myself ;  yet  am 
I  not  hereby  justified  :  but  He  that  judgeth  me  is  the 
Lord."  All  men  are  guilty  of  unconscious  sins, 
which  are  "  hidden  "  alike  from  themselves  and  their 
neighbours.  Many  acts  that  seem  innocent  to  men 
may  be  sinful  in  the  eyes  of  God.  Thus  the  suffer- 
ing of  an  apparently  innocent  man  might  be  due  to 
such  unconscious  sins.  We  have  seen  that  much 
of  the  ritual  provides  for  the  expiation  of  such 
sins.  Obviously,  however,  this  solution  could  not  be 
more  than  partial.  If  consistently  applied — as  for 
instance  to  all  the  sufferings  of  the  righteous — it  in- 
volved a  belief  that  divine  and  human  morality  were 
altogether  different ;  this  would  have  destroyed  the 
influence  of  moral  motives  and  encouraged  superstition 
and  magic.  The  divine  will  cannot  be  a  moral  standard 
for  men  unless  they  know  it,  and  responsibility  is 
limited  by  the  extent  to  which  it  can  be  known. 


JEllOVAU    AND    THE   ISRAELITE        183 

Another  partial  explanation  was  derived  from  the 
fact  that  the  suffering  of  the  righteous  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  wicked  were  often  transient,  and 
each  received  before  his  death  the  due  reward  of  hifl 
works.  Attempts  were  sometimes  made  to  solve  the 
problem  by  suggesting  that  this  always  happened. 
Job's  sufferings  are  compensated  for — in  the  epilogue 
— by  a  long  period  of  renewed  prosperity.  Psalm 
after  psalm  rejoices  in  the  prospect  that  the  wicked 
will  be  punished  and  the  righteous  delivered : 
';  Mark  the  perfect  man,  and  behold  the  upright : 

For  the  latter  end  of  that  man  is  peace ; 

As  for  transgressors,  they  shall  be  destroyed  together. 

The  latter  end  of  the  wicked  shall  be  cut  off"  (Psalm 
xxxvii.  37,  38).  In  Psalm  lxxiii.  19  the  believer, 
perplexed  at  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked  considers 
"  their  latter  end  "  ;  he  goes  into  the  sanctuary  and 
perceives  that  destruction  will  come  suddenly  upon 
them.  But  this  explanation  again  could  only  be 
partial.  The  righteous  often  perished  in  their  misery 
and  the  wicked  died  in  a  prosperous  old  age,  filled 
with  treasure,  satisfied  with  children,  leaving  the  rest 
of  their  substance  to  their  babes  (Psalm  xvii.  14). 

Resort  was  also  had  to  an  invariable  expedient  in 
such  controversies  ;  apologists  ventured  to  deny  the 
facts  in  the  interests  of  dogma.  They  maintained 
that  the  sufferings  of  ostensibly  good  men  were  due 
to  conscious  sins  done  in  secret.  When  loss  or  sick- 
ness, bereavement  or  early  death  befell  the  seemingly 
righteous  man,  he  was  thereby  clearly  shown  to  be 
a  hypocrite.  The  speeches  of  Job's  friends  and  of 
Elihu  are  largely  devoted   to  the  exposition  of   this 


184  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

argument.  It  must  have  been  impossible  to  make  any- 
universal  application  of  the  corresponding  principle 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked,  but  all  analogy 
suggests  that  much  may  have  been  accomplished  in 
this  direction  also,  and  that  the  vices  of  prosperity 
were  often  condoned  or  even  regarded  as  virtues. 
The  Chronicler  ignores  the  vices  of  ancient  kings  like 
David  and  Solomon,  whose  reigns  had  been  splendid 
and  glorious.  Though  this  principle  might  sometimes 
afford  a  true  explanation,  yet  on  the  whole  it  was 
utterly  demoralising ;  it  tended  to  destroy  all  faith  in 
human  nature,  and  it  could  seldom  satisfy  the  sufferer 
or  his  real  friends.  If  the  sufferer  accepted  the 
doctrine  that  his  misery  was  a  proof  of  his  sin,  he 
was  betrayed  into  the  hypocrisy  of  stultifying  his 
own  conscience. 

These  explanations  only  tended  to  deny  or  minimise 
the  difficulty  ;  the  problem  remained  unsolved.  The 
moral  government  of  God  was  asserted  throughout, 
and  the  failure  to  reconcile  it  with  facts  continually 
threw  men  back  on  the  mystery  of  the  divine  dealings, 
as  in  the  Book  of  Job. 

Two  principles,  however,  stand  out  from  these 
discussions,  and  seem  to  have  mitigated  the  stress 
upon  human  faith :  these  are  vicarious  atonement, 
and  the  spiritual  character  of  true  blessedness. 

Vicarious  suffering  was  involved  in  the  moral 
discipline  of  Israel.  By  an  anticipation  of  the 
solidarity  of  humanity,  O.  T.  taught  that  the  nation 
as  a  whole  suffered  for  the  sins  of  individuals,  the 
innocent  with  and  for  the  guilty.  Israel  was  defeated 
before  Ai  on  account  of  Achan's  sin,   and   David's 


JEHOVAH  AND   THE  ISRAELITE        185 

wickedness  in  taking  a  census  was  expiated  by  the 
death  of  seventy  thousand  of  his  innocent  subjects. 
There  might,  of  course,  be  individual  exceptions  from 
national  ruin.     Lot  was  rescued  from  Sodom — wiiere, 
however,  he  was  merely  a  resident  alien — and  Baruch 
and   Ebedmelech   were  promised   personal   safety  in 
the  ruin  of  Jerusalem.     On  the  other  hand,  according 
to   Gen.  xviii.  32,  the  virtue  of  ten  righteous  men 
would   avail    to    save   a   guilty   city.       Nine    such, 
apparently,    must  perish  with  their  guilty  kinsfolk. 
Moreover,  the  continuity. of  the  nation  involved  the 
punishment   of    one    generation  for  the   sins   of    its 
predecessors.      The    captivity    was    regarded    as    a 
punishment   of    Manasseh's   apostasy.     The   guilt  of 
Saul's  bloody  house  was  expiated  by  the  execution  of 
his  seven  sons  and  grandsons.     Ahab  and  Hezekiah 
were   condemned   to   suffer   in    the   person   of   their 
descendants.       On    the    other   hand,    here   also,    the 
vicarious   influence   of   suffering  and   action    has  its 
positive   side,   God   bears  with  David's   dynasty,  for 
the  sake  of  their  great  ancestor.     The  positive  and 
negative  aspects  are  summed   up   in  the  statement 
that  God  punishes  the  children  for  their  father's  sins 
unto  three  or  four  generations,  but  shows  mercy  unto 
the  children  of  the  righteous  for  a  thousand  genera- 
tions (Exod.  xx.  5,  6  ;  cf.  Psalm  lxxix.  8).     But  Ezek. 
xviii.    states   expressly  that  the   righteous  son  shall 
not  die  for  his  father's  sin,  nor  the  wicked  son  be 
saved  by  his  father's  righteousness.     The  affirmation 
and  the  denial  of   hereditary  responsibility   express 
two   truths  which    are   complementary    not    contra- 
dictory. 


186  JEHOVAH  AND   ISRAEL 

Thus,  through  the  solidarity  and  continuity  of  the 
family  and  nation,  0.  T.  theology  recognised  the 
principle  of  the  innocent  suffering  for  the  guilty ;  and 
in  Isa.  liii.  this  principle  is  adopted  to  explain  the 
sufferings  of  the  righteous.  Such  vicarious  suffering 
is  not  a  useless  sacrifice,  but  ministers  to  the  need 
of  the  guilty,  and  may  even  win  their  forgiveness. 
The  national  unity  of  Israel,  by  which  the  innocent 
suffered  for  his  guilty  kinsfolk,  answers  to  that 
solidarity  of  humanity  by  which  the  death  of  Christ 
avails  for  the  race. 

The  second  principle  was  that  of  the  spiritual 
character  of  true  blessedness.  Much  of  the  difficulty 
as  to  God's  moral  government  arose  out  of  the  close 
identification  of  His  rewards  with  material  benefits. 
This  high  estimate  of  external  prosperity  is  thoroughly 
discredited  by  Ecclesiastes,  which  shows  that  health 
and  riches,  long  life  and  a  large  family,  may  be — or, 
acccording  to  it,  are — "vanity  of  vanities,"  "vanity 
and  vexation  of  spirit,"  no  blessings  at  all.  His 
reasoning  obviously  leads  up  to  a  conclusion  which 
he  does  not  state — namely,  that  such  vanities  cannot 
be  infallible  tokens  of  man's  spiritual  state  or  of 
God's  favour.  On  the  other  hand  the  Psalter  shows 
that  men  could  find  delight  in  fellowship  with  God 
and  have  assurance  of  His  approval,  even  when  poor 
and  oppressed.  "  If  only  I  have  Thee  I  ask  for 
nothing  else  in  earth  or  heaven  •  though  body  and 
soul  perish,  yet  Thou,  O  God,  art  my  soul's  comfort 
and  my  portion  for  ever "  (Psalm  lxxiii.  25,  26). 
(Smend  453.) 

No  longer  ciushed  by  the  delusion  that  suffering 


JEHOVAH   AXD   THE  ISRAELITE       187 

was  merely  a  token  of    God's  wrath,  man  discerned 
its  disciplinary  value  : 

"  It  is  good  for  me  that  I  have  been  afflicted ; 
That  I  might  learn  Thy  statutes  "  (Psa.  cxix.  71). 

The  discussion  of  this  problem  naturally  involved 
occasional  reference  to  the  hope  of  a  future  life  (see 
next  section),  and  the  suggestion  that  some  light 
may  be  thrown  on  the  problem  by  the  possibilities 
of  the  future  state.  But  such  suggestions  are  rare 
and  never  clearly  formulated,  no  one  ventured  to  call 
in  the  new  world  to  redress  the  balance  of  the  old. 
Dan.  xii.  2,  3,  does  not  allude  to  our  problem. 
Perhaps  this  reticence  was  not  wholly  duo  to  un- 
certainty about  man's  future  life.  Since  eternal  life 
has  been  included  in  our  speculations  on  the  apparent 
moral  discrepancy  between  the  actual  state  of  the 
universe  and  the  character  of  its  Author  and  Ruler, 
the  problem  has  not  been  solved,  it  has  only  become 
more  complicated  and  assumed  larger  dimensions. 

33.  The  Future  Life.— O.  T.  contains  very  little 
explicit  statement  as  to  the  future  life.  The  state 
or  place  of  the  dead  is  known  as  Sheol,  probably 
the  "  Hollow  Place  "  (cf.  "  hell,"  "  Holle  ") ;  and  more 
rarely  as  Abaddon,  the  "Place  of  Destruction."  It 
is  nowhere  said  that  death  is  the  termination  of 
conscious  life,  and  even  necromancy  implies  a  belief 
in  continued  existence  after  death.  But  Sheol,  like 
Hades,  is  a  realm  of  shadowy,  impotent  ghosts,  and 
existence  in  Sheol  seems  conceived  as  a  kind  of  vague 
nightmare  (cf .  the  scene  of  the  dead  kings  and  nations 
in  Sheol  in  Isa.  xiv.,  Ezek.  xxxii.).  According  to 
Eccles.    ix.    10,   "  there  is  no  work,  nor  device,  nor 


188  JEHOVAH  AND  ISRAEL 

knowledge,  nor  wisdom,  in  Sheol."  In  the  same 
spirit,  the  inhabitants  of  Sheol  are  called  Rephaim, 
"the  feeble  ones." 

Such  conceptions  of  life  in  Sheol  were  very  far 
removed  from  that  future  life  which  N.  T.  describes 
as  beginning  with  the  resurrection ;  but  the  teaching 
of  0.  T.  partly  bridges  the  gulf  between  the  two. 
The  first  suggestions  of  such  a  resurrection  are  met 
with  in  connection  with  the  nation,  and  its  repre- 
tatives,  patriarchs,  and  prophets.  The  narratives  of 
the  translation  of  Enoch  and  Elijah  indicate  a  belief 
in  a  possibility  of  a  future  life  of  bliss  with  God. 
The  possibility  of  release  from  Sheol  is  implied  in  the 
accounts  of  how  Elisha  raised  the  son  of  the  Shunam- 
mite  from  the  dead,  and  of  how  the  prophet's  bones 
revived  a  corpse.  With  regard  to  the  nation,  as  a 
rule  the  prophets  teach  that  the  new  Israel  will 
spring  from  the  surviving  remnant  of  the  old.  Yet 
sometimes  they  seem  to  intimate  that  the  expansion 
of  the  remnant  into  a  numerous  people  is  not  to  be 
brought  about  by  any  tedious  process  of  natural  in- 
crease of  population,  but  by  a  kind  of  resurrection 
of  the  ancient  people.  So  Hosea  vi.  2  :  "After  two 
days  He  will  revive  us :  on  the  third  day  He  will 
raise  us  up,  and  we  shall  live  before  Him  " ;  and  in 
Ezek.  xxxvii.  1-14,  the  new  Israel  is  formed  by  the 
revivifying  of  the  dry  bones  of  dead  Israelites.  The 
nation  even  involves  its  Redeemer  in  its  own  fortunes, 
and  in  Isa.  liii.,  the  Righteous  Servant  accomplishes 
His  mission  by  His  death  and  resurrection. 

Such  instances  of  individual  or  national  resurrection 
readily  suggest  the  principle  of  a  general  resurrection 


JEHOVAH  AND    THE   ISRAELITE       189 

of  mankind.  But  this  further  step  was  taken  with 
much  hesitation.  Even  the  discussion  of  the  divine 
allotment  of  happiness  and  suffering  to  individuals 
barely  hinted  at  possible  readjustment  and  compensa- 
tion hereafter.  We  find  the  hope  rather  than  the 
assurance  of  such  vindication  of  the  divine  righteous- 
ness, and  that  only  in  a  few  passages.  In  Job  xiv.  13, 
14,  the  sufferer  even  ventures  to  hope  that  he  may  be 
recalled  to  life  from  Sheol ;  and  in  spite  of  corrupt 
text  and  doubtful  translation  (xix.  25,  26),  "  I  know 
that  my  Redeemer  liveth,"  etc.,  seems  to  intimate  a 
similar  vision  (cf.  also  Psalms  xi.  7,  xvii.  15). 

It  is  only  in  Dan.  xii.  2  that  we  are  told  that 
"  many  of  them  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth 
shall  awake,  some  to  everlasting  life,  and  some  to 
shame  and  everlasting  contempt." 


DIVISION  II 
GOD  AND   THE   UNIVERSE 


DIVISION   II 

GOD    AND    THE    UNIVERSE 

34.  Man. — Israel  is  always  the  main  interest,  as 
well  as  the  starting  point,  of  0.  T.  theology.  Yet,  if 
to  understand  the  "  flower  in  the  crannied  wall,  what 
it  is,  root  and  all,  and  all  in  all,"  is  to  know  "  what 
God  and  man  is,"  a  similar  understanding  of  the 
purpose  and  operation  of  the  divine  dealings  with 
Israel  would  illuminate  the  whole  range  of  theology. 
Israel  stood  related  to  the  human  race ;  to  be 
thoroughly  effective  the  God  of  Israel  must  control 
the  mutual  relations  of  Israel  and  mankind — i.e.,  He 
must  be  the  Lord  of  nations.  The  question  of  the 
relation  of  God  to  the  heathen  naturally  arose  from 
the  relation  of  Israel  to  its  neighbours.  Its  God,  in 
the  first  instance  met  the  heathen  as  its  champion 
against  its  enemies.  A  champion,  however,  is  not 
always  victorious.  Heathen,  and  popular  Jewish 
theology  could  imagine  the  divine  champion  of  one 
nation  defeated  by  the  gods  of  its  enemies;  and  it 
was  understood  that  in  a  national  defeat  the  national 
deity  might  be  included  among  the  vanquished.  Thus 
the  victories  of  Israel  implied  Jehovah's  power  over 
vanquished  gods  and  nations.  But  the  prophets  even 
discerned  the  outstretched  arm  of  Jehovah  in  the 
193  13 


194  GOD   AND   THE    UNIVERSE 

catastrophes  of  His  people.  Their  conquerors,  Egypt, 
Assyria,  and  Babylon,  were  the  instruments  of  His 
justice.  Hence  the  whole  course  of  history  mani- 
fested the  supremacy  of  Jehovah  over  all  mankind. 
Thus,  too,  the  Jewish  conceptions  of  the  power  and 
majesty  of  Jehovah  became  more  exalted  as  their 
international  horizon  widened. 

But  in  spite  of  the  Israelite  standpoint  of  the  0.  T. 
its  recognition  of  the  moral  character  of  Jehovah 
excluded  the  possibility  of  arbitrary  favouritism.  God 
overthrows  heathen  empires  on  account  of  their  sins, 
and  not  merely  to  serve  the  interests  of  Israel. 
Amongst  their  sins  are  reckoned  their  mutual  in- 
justice and  their  treatment  of  their  own  subjects,  as 
well  as  the  injuries  inflicted  upon  Israel.  Jehovah  is 
interested  in  justice,  benevolence,  and  good  govern- 
ment amongst  all  mankind. 

This  attitude  is  implied  by  the  genealogies ;  all 
mankind — and  not  merely  the  Israelites — are  made 
in  the  divine  image  and  likeness,  and  share  the  life 
which  Jehovah  breathed  into  the  nostrils  of  the 
first  man.  All  existing  races  have  a  share  in 
the  deliverance  from  the  Flood  and  the  covenant 
with  Noah.  Moreover,  Ishmael  and  Esau,  Moab 
and  Amnion,  inherit  divine  promises  as  well  as 
Israel. 

O.  T.  too,  recognises  genuine  religion  quite  indepen- 
dent of  the  revelation  made  to  Israel.  Melchisedek  king 
of  Salem,  priest  of  El  Elyon  (E.V.,  "the  Most  High 
God  ")  receives  tithes  from  Abraham  and  is  recognised 
in  Psalm  ex.  as  the  highest  type  of  priest ;  Jethro,  the 
priest  of  Midian,  is  exhibited  in  the  most  favourable 


GOD  ASD  THE   UNIVERSE  195 

and  honourable  light;  and  the  Mesopotamian  Balaam 
becomes  the  organ  of  divine  revelation.  Moreover, 
the  Law  is  not  unmindful  of  the  resident  alien  (gey.). 
He  may  become  circumcised,  partake  of  the  Passover, 
and  thus  virtually  become  an  Israelite,  or  more 
strictly  a  proselyte  (Exod.  xii.  48). 

0.  T.  constantly  recognises  God's  interest  in  the 
heathen.  Hence  Jonah's  mission  to  Nineveh,  and 
the  flattering  picture  of  the  Moabite  widow,  ftuth. 
In  Amos  ix.  7,  God's  interest  in  the  Philistines  and 
the  Syrians  is  placed  on  the  same  level  as  His  care  for 
Israel;  and  in  Isa.  xl.-lxvi.,  Israel's  mission  is  to  be  a 
light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles.  In  Daniel,  other  nations 
have  their  guardian  angels  as  well  as  Israel;  and 
Deut.  iv.  19  states  that  Jehovah  assigned  the  host  of 
heaven  as  objects  of  worship  to  all  the  nations  under  the 
whole  heaven.  But  whatever  traces  there  may  be  in 
the  O.  T.  of  divine  recognition  of  worship,  outside  the 
religion  of  Israel,  such  recognition  is  only  temporary 
and  provisional.  As  the  starting  point  of  humanity 
is  its  creation  in  the  image  of  God,  so  the  goal  is  its 
comprehension  in  that  Kingdom  of  God,  which  also 
realises  the  highest  hopes  of  Israel. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  absolute  anthropology  in  the 
0.  T. ;  man's  relation  to  God  is  mediated  from  be- 
ginning to  end  through  the  Chosen  People.  Strictly 
speaking  the  O.  T.  has  no  doctrine  of  man  as  man, 
but  only  as  Israelite.  Adam  and  the  patriarchs  owe 
their  religious  status  to  the  fact  that  they  are  to  be 
the  ancestors  of  Israel,  they  are  not  mere  men  but 
the  elect  subjects  of  special  covenants,  and  represent 
Israel   and   not  ordinary    humanity.     On    the    other 


196  GOD   AND   THE    UNIVERSE 

hand  so  far  as  the  true  Israel  is  ultimately  to 
embrace  all  mankind,  Israel  and  the  religious  life 
of  Israel  become  the  types  of  humanity  and  its 
relation  to  God.  Man,  therefore,  is  a  responsible, 
free  agent,  capable  by  his  spirit  (ruah)  of  having 
fellowship  with  God,  and  of  receiving  or  resisting 
the  suggestions  of  the  Spirit  of  God  (cf.  pp.  71,  105, 
112,  176,  178,  187). 

35.  Evil. — O.  T.  offers  no  explanation  of  the  origin 
or  existence  of  evil,  especially  of  moral  evil.  Isa. 
xlv.  6,  7  indeed  states  :  "  I  am  Jehovah  and  there  is 
none  else.  I  form  the  light  and  create  darkness ;  I 
make  peace  and  create  evil  :  I  Jehovah  do  all  these 
things."  But  the  inspired  writer  is  here  emphasising 
the  divine  unity  and  not  seeking  to  explain  the  mystery 
of  evil ;  he  is  probably  thinking  rather  of  suffering 
than  of  sin.  On  the  other  hand,  according  to  Gen.  i., 
"God  saw  all  that  He  had  made  and  it  was  very  good." 
The  document  to  which  Gen.  i.  belongs  states  in  Gen. 
vi.  11,  12,  that  the  earth  became  corrupt,  but  it  does 
not  explain  how  a  perfect  creation  fell  from  its 
primeval  purity.  But  although  Gen.  iii.  comes  origi- 
nally from  a  different  document,  the  author  of  the 
Pentateuch  may  have  intended  it  to  account  for  this 
lapse.  According  to  Gen.  iii.,  sin  in  the  human  race 
had  its  origin  in  external  suggestion,  to  which  first 
woman  and  then  man  succumbed.  But  the  narrative 
throws  no  light  on  the  origin  of  evil,  for  we  find 
it  already  existing  in  a  most  malignant  form  in  the 
serpent,  which  is  itself  a  creature  of  God,  and  which 
— if  we  connect  with  Gen  i. — had  been  pronounced 
very  good. 


GOT)   A  XI)    THE    UNIVERSE  197 

O.  T.  as  a  whole  assumes  moral  evil  and  human 
responsibility,  but  makes  no  attempt  to  explain  them, 
or  to  reconcile  them  with  God's  sovereignty  and 
perfect  moral  nature. 

36.  Material  Universe. — If  Jehovah  was  to  be  in 
any  real  sense  God,  even  of  Israel,  He  must  not  only 
be  Lord  of  the  Nations,  but  also  of  the  Universe. 
His  lordship  of  the  nations  involved  His  supremacy 
over  the  lands  they  inhabited.  He  sent  pestilence 
and  famine  upon  the  heathen  as  well  as  upon  His 
own  people.  Moreover,  in  blessing  Israel  with 
fertility  or  afflicting  it  with  barrenness,  heaven  and 
all  its  hosts  were  His  instruments.  Thus  Jehovah  is 
Creator  and  Ruler  alike  of  earth  and  heaven.  At  the 
same  time  the  problems  of  the  origin  of  matter,  or 
of  an  absolute  beginning  of  things,  do  not  seem  to 
have  presented  themselves  to  0.  T.  writers.  When 
God  created  (Gen.  i.)  bara',  earth  and  heaven,  the 
prior  existence  of  a  waste  abyss  seems  implied, 
and  there  is  no  sufficient  evidence  that  the  mere 
term  barcC  proves  that  a  creation  out  of  nothing  is 
intended. 

Similarly  0.  T.  has  no  fixed  and  definite  doctrine 
of  the  ultimate  destiny  of  the  present  material 
universe.  Many  passages,  however,  suggest  that 
one  of  the  preliminaries  to  the  establishment  of  the 
Kingdom  of  God  will  be  the  complete  transfiguration 
of  the  present  material  universe  or  even  its  de- 
struction (Isa.  li.  6,  lxvi.  22,  lxv.  17  ;  Joel  ii.  30,  31  ; 
Haggai  ii.  21). 

37.  Supernatural  Beings. — The  lordship  of  Jehovah 
over  earth  and  heaven  implies  His  supremacy  in  the 


198  GOD   AND  THE    UNIVERSE 

spiritual  universe.  Here,  too,  0.  T.  starts  from  the 
conception  of  a  national  deity.  Such  a  God  to  be 
all-availing  must  be  supreme  over  all  other  gods.  As 
champion  of  Israel  He  must  be  able  to  subdue  the 
supernatural  powers  which  fight  for  their  enemies. 
He  can  only  secure  fertility  for  His  land  by  con- 
trolling the  spirits  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  to  whom 
the  heathen  ascribed  an  independent  deity.  Eastern 
imagination  peopled  the  springs,  and  ancient  trees,  the 
stones,  cairns,  and  hill  tops  with  innumerable  spirits, 
able  to  ban  or  bless  their  human  neighbours.  The 
Israelite  lived  in  continual  fear  for  himself,  his  family, 
his  cattle  and  farm,  unless  he  was  assured  that  these 
spirits  were  also  subject  to  the  will  of  the  God  of 
Israel. 

The  divine  name  which  Jehovah  bears  as  one  of  a 
class  of  spiritual  or  supernatural  beings  is  ELOHIM. 
Elohim  is  also  used  of  the  gods  of  the  heathen,  of 
the  spirit  of  the  dead  prophet  Samuel,  and  even 
of  exalted  earthly  authorities.  When  it  is  desired  to 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  True  God  is 
referred  to,  ha-Elohim,  the  God  is  often  used. 

The  form  is  plural,  and  when  it  is  used  of  false 
gods,  etc.,  it  may  be  construed  either  as  a  singular  or 
plural,  but  when  it  refers  to  the  True  God,  it  is 
almost  always  construed  as  a  singular.  0.  T.  does 
not  explain  why  the  plural  is  used.  It  has  been 
held  to  indicate  the  exaltation  and  infinite  variety  of 
the  divine  qualities  and  operations — plural  of  majesty 
— or  as  a  relic  of  a  time  when  the  supernatural  world 
was  conceived  of  as  a  plurality  of  undistinguished 
beings — Elohim. 


GOD   AXD   THE    UXIYERSE  199 

We  find  traces  in  0.  T.  of  various  views  of  the 
relation  of  other  supernatural  beings  to  Jehovah. 

i.  According  to  the  ordinary  Semitic  view,  to 
which  popular  Jewish  superstition  long  tended  to 
return,  Jehovah,  Chemosh,  Moloch,  etc.,  etc.,  were 
each  of  them  tribal  gods,  of  the  same  genus,  but 
differing  in  power  and  authority. 

ii.  There  was  also  a  tendency  to  confuse  Jehovah 
with  other  gods.  He  seems  sometimes  to  have  been 
worshipped  as  Baal  or  Moloch. 

iii.  While  the  heathen  gods  are  still  recognised 
as  actual  supernatural  beings,  Jehovah  is  regarded 
as  a  being  of  a  different  order,  unique  and  supreme 
(Isa.  xl.,  etc.). 

iv.  The  heathen  gods  are  regarded  as  NO-gods, 
nonentities  ('ELILik,  not  'ELOHIM). 

v.  Tn  Daniel  the  heathen  gods  are  replaced  by 
guardian  angels  of  heathen  nations. 

By  these  steps  Jehovah's  rivals  were  reduced  either 
to  nonentities  or  to  His  humble  servants,  and  took 
their  place  in  His  heavenly  court,  amongst  the 
various  orders  and  species  of  angels.  Thus  Jehovah 
is  shown  to  be  unique  and  supreme  amongst  super- 
natural beings. 

38.  The  Doctrine  of  God.— We  have  already 
mentioned  the  names,  Jehovah,  etc.,  which  are 
personal  to  the  God  of  Israel,  and  Elohim  which 
describes  God  as  a  supernatural  being.  Besides  these 
EL  is  a  divine  name  common  to  all  Semitic  languages. 
It  is  of  uncertain  origin,  often  explained  as  the 
"  Strong  One,"  and  sometimes  supposed  to  be  etymo- 
logically  connected  with  Elohim.     ' E L OA  JI  is  merely 


200  GOD  AND   THE    UNIVERSE 

a  singular  formed  from  Elohim,  and  chiefly  occurs 
in  Job.  'EL  'ELTON,  in  Gen.  xiv.  is  the  deity 
worshipped  by  Melchisedeck.  Elsewhere,  'ELYON 
(E.V.,  "  Most  High ")  is  an  epithet  or  name  of 
the  God  of  Israel ;  it  is  also  a  Phoenician  divine 
name.  SHADDAI,  also  in  EL  SHADDAI  (E.V., 
"Almighty"),  is  a  name  of  uncertain  origin  and 
meaning. 

We  may  now  briefly  summarise  what  is  stated  or 
implied  in  O.  T.  concerning  the  doctrine  of  God. 
The  most  formal  statements  on  the  subject  are 
Isa.  xl.-xlvm. 

He   is  Elohim,  a   supernatural  being,  differing  in 

/  undefined  and  undefinable  ways  from  men.     In  spite 

/  of   the  plural    form  of  Elohim,  He  is  One,  unique 

,'     amongst,  and  supreme  over,  all   other   supernatural 

beings,  or  Elohim.     He  is  therefore  self -existent  and 

self -sufficient,  according  to  the  interpretation  attached 

in  Exod.  iii.  14,  to  the  personal  name  Jehovah,  "  I 

am    that    I    am."  *      He   is   personal,    all    personal 

attributes,    consciousness,    will,    emotion,  are    freely 

ascribed  to  Him. 

Positively  God  is  the  origin  of  all  things,  the 
Creator  of  the  universe  and  of  mankind.  He  is 
omnipotent,  omniscient,  omnipresent  and  eternal. 
Negatively,  He  is  subject  to  no  limitations.  As 
omnipotent  He  is  unlimited  either  by  the  forces  or 
qualities  of  matter. 

*  The  alternative  explanations  :  "  I  become  what  I  become," 
' '  I  will  be  what  I  will  be,"  do  not  materially  affect  the 
general  testimony  of  the  interpretation  to  the  divine  unique- 
ness and  self-sufficiency, 


GOD   AXD   THE    UNIVERSE  201 

The  absolute  freedom  of  God's  action  in  nature  is 
shown  by  miracles,  extraordinary  and  surprising 
deviations  from  what  is  familiar  to  man's  experience 
of  Nature  (pele  niphldoth  mojrfieth),  which  serve  as 
signs  (oth),  and  also  show  that  He  is  not  limited  by 
the  will  of  animals,  men,  or  supernatural  beings.  As 
omniscient,  He  is  not  limited  by  distance  in  space,  by 
the  past  or  future  in  time,  by  intervening  material 
obstacles,  or  by  the  privacy  of  human  consciousness. 
He  "  declareth  unto  man  what  is  his  thought " 
(Amos  iv.  13).  As  omnipresent  He  can  manifest 
Himself,  speak,  act,  everywhere,  in  Egypt  and 
Chaldea,  as  well  as  in  Palestine;  His  special  connec- 
tion with  Palestine  is  not  due  to  any  necessity  of 
His  own  nature,  but  to  His  free  election  of  Israel. 
Thus  Psalm  cxxxix.  8-12  : 

"  If  I  ascend  up  into  heaven,  Thou  art  there, 
If   I  make  my  bed  in   Sheol,  behold,  Thou  art 

there. 
If  I  take  the  wings  of  the  morning, 
And  dwell  in  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  sea  ; 
Even  there  shall  Thy  hand  lead  me, 
And  Thy  right  hand  shall  hold  me. 
If  I  say,  surely  the  darkness  shall  overwhelm 

me, 
And  the  light  about  me  shall  be  night ; 
Even  the  darkness  hideth  not  from  Thee, 
But  the  night  shineth  as  the  day  ; 
The   darkness  and  the  light  are   both    alike  to 

Thee." 

He  is  eternal,  the  O.  T.  knows  nothing  of  any  beginning 


202  GOD   AND   THE    UNIVERSE 

or  ending  of  God,  but  always  states  or  implies  His 
existence  before  all  things,  during  all  history,  and 
beyond  its  farthest  outlook  into  the  future. 

In  His  relation  to  mankind,  as  typified  by  His 
dealings  with  Israel  (cf.  §  33),  He  shows  Himself  a 
moral  being,  self-consistent,  just  and  benevolent. 
Thus,  in  Exod.  xxxiv.  5-7,  He  proclaims  "His 
Name  "  as  "  Jehovah,  Jehovah,  a  God  full  of  compas- 
sion and  gracious,  slow  to  anger,  and  plenteous  in 
mercy  and  truth,  keeping  mercy  for  a  thousand 
generations,  forgiving  iniquity  and  transgression  and 
sin  ;  and  that  will  by  no  means  clear  the  guilty ; 
visiting  the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children, 
and  the  children's  children,  upon  the  third  and  fourth 
generation." 


INDEX    OF    SUBJECTS 


PACK 

PAGE 

Aaron,  House  of   . 

56,  57,  75 

Baal       .         .      13,  17.  39,  9; 

Abaddon 

.     187 

Babylon,  Fall  of    . 

.       62 

Abraham 

102,  113 

Balaam  . 

.     195 

Accursed  Thing     . 

.     155 

Ban 

.     155 

Achan    . 

.     114 

Baruch  . 

.     185 

Adjurations  . 

155 

Benevolence  of  God 

.     104 

Adonai . 

.       98 

Bethel   . 

.     125 

Adultery 

.     176 

Blessing 

1 55 

Agricultural  Feasts 

.     137 

Blood     . 

143, 157 

Ahab 

115,  185 

Brotherhood  of  Man 

.     194 

Ahaz 

.       23 

Burnt  Offering 

.     148 

Ahijah   . 

.     113 

Altar     . 

.     147 

Candlestick,  Golden 

.     157 

Amon    . 

.       32 

Canon    . 

42,  115 

Amos     . 

.       14 

Captivity — 

Angel  of  Jehovah  . 

.     108 

Assyrian 

.       26 

Angels  . 

.     107 

Babylonian 

54 

Anger  of  God 

.       99 

Chaos    . 

.     197 

Anointing 

.     154 

Cherubim 

.     10S 

Anthropomorphism 

.       99 

Chronicles 

69 

Anthropopathism  . 

.       99 

Circumcision 

.     142 

Antiochus  Ephiphanes .       74 

Cities  of  Refuge    . 

.     126 

Apocrypha     . 

.     117 

Cleanness 

142,  156 

Ark    *    . 

.     157 

Conscience     . 

.     176 

'Ash  am . 

149,  161 

Courts    of     Tabernacle 

'AsJtrra 

31,  35 

and  Temple 

.     127 

Ashes     . 

.     143 

Covenant 

.      101 

Astronomical  Feasts 

.     139 

„         Book  of 

.     102 

Atonement — 

,,          New- 

.       85 

Day  of        .       141 

151,  166 

Creation 

.     197 

Doctrine  of 

166,  184 

Curses    . 

.     l :»:. 

Azazel  . 

152,  168 

Cyrus    . 

62,  90 

203 


204 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


Daniel,  Book  of 
David    . 

„     House  of 
Day  of  Jehovah 
Dead     . 
Deborah 
Decalogue 
Dedication, — 

Feast  of     . 

Services 
Demons 
Deuteronomy 
Devoted  Thing 
Dispersion     . 
Divination     . 
Divine  Sovereignty 
Dreams 
Drink  Offering 

Ecclesiastes  . 
Ecstasy 
Edom    . 
Egypt   . 
El 

„     Elyon    . 

„     Shaddai 
Enemy,  Love  of 
Enoch    . 
Ephod  . 
Esther  . 
Eternity  of  God 
Evil       . 

Excommunication 
Existence  of  God 
Exodus . 
Ezekiel . 
Ezra      . 


God 


Faith     . 

Faithfulness  of 

Fall 

Family,  The  . 

Fasts     . 

Fat 

Fatherhood  of  God 

Feasts    . 

Firstlings 


PAGE 

74,  81,  84 

91,  113 

.   87 

33,  80,  81 

188 

135 

173 

139 
153 
110 

34,  55 
155 

54,  62 
135 
100 
114 
146 

68,  69 
.  135 
.   54 

28,  43 
.  199 
194,  199 
.  199 
.  173 
.  188 
.  114 
.  73 
.  201 
.  196 
.  161 
.  201 
7 

51-62 
.   64 

.  179 
.  103 
.  196 
.  128 
139,  153 
.  157 
97,  100 
.  136 
.     157 


Firstfruits 
Folly     . 
Food      . 
Foreigners 
Forgiveness 
Future  Life  . 


Gedaliah 

Gentiles 

Glory  of  God 

God- 
Doctrine  of 
Names  of   . 
Unity  of     . 

God's  Heathen 

Gog        . 

Graven  Image 

Guilt  Offeriner 


PAGE 

.  137,  157 
.  175 
.  142 
.  173 
40,  177 
.     187 

.       53 

73,  195 

.     104 

39,  103,  199 

.   3,  12,  198 

.       39 

.     197 

.       82 
35 
161 


149. 


Habakkuk  ...  50 
Haggai  .         .  .63 

Hananiah  .  .  .115 
Hands,  Laying  on  of  .  165 
Harvest,  Feast  of  .  .137 
Hattath  .  .  149,  161 
Heathen         .  73,  86,  195 

Heave  Offering  .  .145 
Heaven,  Queen  of .  45,  53 
Heiresses  .  .  .125 
Hell,  see  sheol  ;  abaddon. 
Heredity  .  .  .185 
Her  em  (Ban)  .  .  155 
Hezekiah       .         .  28-32 

High  Places  .  .  35,  125 
High  Priest  .  .  .131 
History,  Revelation  in  .  Ill 
Holiness,  Law  of  .  56-58 

Holy,  Holiness,  etc.   See 

sacred,  etc. 
Hosea    .         .         .  17-20 

Host  of  Heaven  .  .107 
Hosts,  Lord  of  .98 


Idols      . 
Image  of  God 
Images  . 
luimanuel 


.       35 
.     194 

.       35 
24.  89 


INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS 


205 


PAGE 

Incense.         .  .         .157 

Individualism  17,  71,  171,  173 

Inspiration    .  .      105,  112 

Isaiah    .         .  20-25,  27-33 

„  xl.-lxvi.  .  .  59 
Israel  and  the  Heathen        S6 

Israel,  Client  (Ger)    of 

Jehovah     .  .         .101 


Jacob     . 

.     132 

Jealousy  Offering  . 
Jehoahaz 

.     14(3 
.       43 

Jehoiakim 

.43.  47 

Jehoiachin     . 

50 

Jehovah 

3,  97 

„       Sabaoth     . 

.       97 

Jehu 

14 

Jeremiah        .      33,  43- 

53,  60 

,,        Book  of  . 

55 

Jeroboam  II. 

.       14 

Jerusalem,  Fall  of 

.       51 

Jethro   . 

.     194 

Job 

68,  69 

Joel 

83,  84 

Jonah    .         .           14,  ( 

8.  195 

Joshua  . 

.     102 

„      (HP)  .         . 
Josiah    . 

.       93 
33-44 

Jubilee  . 

.     142 

Judaism 

62-79 

Judges,  Book  of     . 

.       55 

Judgment  on — 
Heathen     . 

.       50 

Israel 

8 

Justice  of  God 

104 

King       .         .         .     1] 
Kingdom  of  God    . 

2.  129 

.       79 

Kings,  Book  of 
Knowledge  of  Gal        1 

.       55 
9,  175 

KPR  (make 

Atonement)     152,  IE 

9,  166 

Law.  see  covenant. 
Book  of.  Deuteb- 
onomy,  ezekiel. 
Holiness.  Law  of, 
Levitical  Law, 
Priestly         Code. 

Leprosy 

Levites  .         .         .56, 

Levitical  Law- 
Life  Eternal  . 

Long-suffering  of  God 

Lord 

Lot 

Love  of  God  . 


112 
131 

64 
189 
104 

98 
185 
104 


Maccabees  ...  74 
Maggeba         .         .  31.  35 

Majesty  of  God  .  .104 
Malachi  .         .  64,  67,  84 

Man  .  .  .  .193 
Manasseh  ...  32 
Marriage   of    God  with 

Israel         .  .         .101 

Matter  .  .  .  .197 
Megiddo,  Battle  of  .  45 
Melchisedek  .  .  .194 
Mercy  Seat  .  .  .157 
Messiah.  .  .  79,87 
Micah  .  .  .  .25-27 
Michael  ...       83 

Ml, i ha  .  .  .  .146 
Miracle.  ...  200 
Moloch  ...  45,  198 
Monotheism  .        39,  200 

Moses    .         .         91,  113.  178 


Lamentations 
Land  of  Israel 
.,     as  Tropei-ty  . 


58 
124 
124 


Nahum  . 
Name,  The     . 
Nature,  Revelation  in 
Nazirites 

Nebuchadnezzar    . 
Necho    . 
Necromancy  . 
Xi dab  a . 
Nehemiah 
Nehushtan     . 


33 

104 

111 

136 

47 

43 

187 

148 

61 

31 


206 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 


New  Heavens  and  New- 

Religion — 

Earth 

.       94 

Popular 

9 

New  Moon 

.     139 

Prophetic  . 

.       11 

New  Year 

.     140 

Remnant        .   23,  49 

93, 136 

Nineveh,  Fall  of 

.       93 

Repentance   . 

41,  178 

Noah 

.     102 

of  God 

.       99 

Rephaim 

.     188 

Oaths 

.     155 

Restoration  of  Judah 

60,  62 

Obadiah 

54 

Resurrection . 

.     189 

Offerings 
Oil 

.     145 
.     154 

Retribution    . 
Return  . 

13,  176 
60,  62 

Ola 

.     148 

Revelation     . 

.     105 

Omnipotence 
Omnipresence 
Omniscience . 

.     200 
.     200 
.     200 

Rewards 
Righteousness— 
of  God 

.  176 
.     103 

Omri,  House  of 

.       14 

of  Man 

.     173 

Ritual    .         .      9,11 

54,  141 

Ruth      . 

68,  195 

Passover 

138,  151 

Peace  Offerings 

.     148 

Sabaoth,  see  Hosts,  Lord 

Pekah    . 

.       23 

of 

Pentateuch,    see    ( 

Jove- 

Sabbath 

.     140 

nant,      Book 

of, 

Sabbatical  Year     . 

58,  142 

Deuteronomy, 

Ho- 

Sacred— 

liness,     Law 

of, 

Acts  . 

.     141 

Levitical 

Law, 

Persons 

.     128 

Priestly  Codi 

s. 

Place,  The 

.     127 

Pentecost 

.     138 

Places 

.     124 

Personality  of  Goc 

.     200 

Seasons 

.     136 

Pilgrimages    . 

.     138 

Things 

.     156 

Polytheism    . 

.       10 

Sacred  Place,  The  Most     128 

Praise    . 

.     152 

Sacred  Things,  Most 

.     159 

Prayer  . 

.     152 

Sacrifices 

143,  144 

Priestly  Code 

.       64 

„       Doctrine  of 

.     163 

Priests  .         .  56, 1 

>7,  113,  131 

Salt 

.     146 

,,     of  High  Pla 

ces  .38,56 

Samaria,  Fall  of    . 

.       26 

Prophets  11,15,38 

47,113,133 

Samaritans    . 

.       67 

Proselytes 

.     195 

Samuel .         .         .55 

,  91,113 

Proverbs 

.       68 

Sanballat 

.       68 

Providence    . 

.     100 

Sanctity 

123,  159 

Psalms  . 

67,  68,  153 

„       of  God 

.     104 

„     Messianic 

88,  92 

Sargon  . 

.       28 

Punishment   . 

.     176 

Satan     . 

.     109 

Purification  .      1- 

t3,  149,  161 

Satyrs    .         .         . 

.     110 

Purim    . 

.     139 

Saul 

91,  114 

Scepticism     . 

.     180 

Qorban  . 

.     145 

Scoffing 

.     176 

Queen  of  Heaven 

45,  53 

Scorners 

.     176 

INDEX   OF  SUBJECTS 


207 


PAGE 

Scribes  .         .         .         .136 
Scripture,  see  Canon 
Scythians       .         .         .33 
Seers      .         .         .         .134 
Self- Consistency 

of  God  .  .  .103 
Self-Righteousness  .  9 
Sennacherib  .  .  .30 
Seraphim  .  .  .109 
Serpent.  .  .  110,  196 
Servant  of  Jehovah  60, 90, 178 
Seven  (Sacred  Number)  110 
Shaddai  .         .         .199 

Shear-jashub  .  .  23 
Shelamim  .  .  .  147 
Sheol     .  .         .187 

Shewbread  .  .  146,  157 
Sign  .  .  .  .200 
Sin  160,  175 

Sinai  .  .  .  .102 
Sin-offering  .  .  149,  161 
Sins  of  Inadvertence — 

i.e.,  "  Hidden  Sins  "  .  161 
Sins,  Presumptuous  .  161 
Sons  of  God  .  .  .107 
Sons  of  the  Prophets  .  134 
Soothsaying  .  .  .135 
Spirit  of  God         .         .     105 

„  of  Man  .  .  196 
Sufferings  of  the 

Righteous  .         .       68, 
Synagogues   . 
Syncretism    . 


179 

128 

45 


Tabernacle  .  .  .126 
Tabernacles.  Feast  of  138, 139 
Temple  .  36,  44,  63,  126,  156 
Tenupha         .         .         .145 


Tcruma 

.     145 

Thankoffering 
Theophanies  . 
Time,  Sanctity  of  . 
Toiah     . 

.     148 
.     105 
.     136 
.     114 

Transcendentalism 

.     110 

Trespass  Offering  .     149,  161 
Trustworthiness  of  God      103 

Trinity  . 

.     110 

Types     . 

.     114 

Universalism. 

.       86 

Unleavened  Bread, 

Feast  of     . 

137,  151 

Urim  and  Thummim 

.     114 

Vicarious  Atonement 

.     184 

Vintage  Feast 
Visions  . 

.     137 
.     114 

Vows 

.     152 

War       . 

.     143 

Washings 
Wave  Offering 
Week     . 

.     143 
.     145 
.     140 

Weeks,  Feast  of     . 

.     138 

Wisdom 

.     106 

Word     . 

.     105 

Zadok,  House  of    . 

.       56 

Zebah     . 

.     147 

„     Shelamim     . 

.     148 

„     Toda     . 

.     148 

,,     Tenia  . 

.     148 

Zechariah 

.       63 

Zephaniah 

.       43 

Zerubbabel     . 

88,  93 

INDEX    OF    0.    T.    PASSAGES 


Genesis. 


i.,  u. 
i.  26 
iii. 

iii.  24     . 
vi.  11,  12 
ix. 
xiv. 

xv.,  xvii. 
xvii. 
xvii.  14  . 
xviii.  1   . 
xviii.  32 
xix.  1 
xx.  2 
xx.  7 
xxii.  2    . 
xxvi.  2   . 
xxviii.  19 
xxxi.  13 
xxxii.  1 . 
xxxv.  14,  15 
xlvi.  1    . 


105,  140, 


Exodus 


iii.  1  . 

iii.  13  . 

iii.  14  . 
vi.  2 

xii.  15,  19 


196,  197 
112 
196 
108 
196 
102 
199 
102 
142 
161 
125 
185 
109 
125 
113 
125 
125 
125 
126 
109 
125 
125 


.     124 

7 
97,  200 


7 
161 


Exodus 
xii.  48    . 
xix. 

xix.  5,  6 
xx. 

xx.  5,  6  . 
xx.  20  :  xxiii 
xxii.  6-11 
xxiii.  4  . 
xxiii.  14 
xxiii.  15 
xxiii.  16 
xxiii.  19 
xxiv. 
xxiv.  5  . 
xxiv.  7  . 
xxv. -xl. 
xxv.  2    . 
xxv.  29  . 
xxv.  30  . 
xxviii.,  xxix 
xxix. 
xxix.  38-16 

XXX. 

xxx.  10  . 
xxx.  13  . 
xxx.  22-29 
xxx.  33,  38 
xxxi.  3  . 
xxxi.  14 
xxxiv.  5-7 
xxxiv.  10 


33 


{continued). 

142,  195 

.  124 

.  128 

.  173 

.  185 

102,  173 

.  156 

.  173 

.  138 

.  151 

.  137 

137,  138 

.  105 

.  144 

.  102 

.  157 

.  145 

.  147 

.  146 

.  131 

.  154 

.  151 

.  108 

.  141 

.  145 

.  159 

.  161 

.  105 

.  161 

.  201 

.  102 


INDEX   OF  0.    T.   PASSAGES 


209 


Exodus  (continued). 

Leviticus  (continued). 

xxxv.  13 

146 

xvii.  1-7 

58 

xxxvi.  8 

108 

xvii.  7    . 

110 

xxxvii.  . 

108 

xvii.  11  . 

157 

xxxvii.  16 

147 

xviii.-xx. 

57 

xxxviii.  24 

145 

xviii. 
xix.  2     . 
xix.  5-8  . 

161 

57 

148 

Leviticus. 

xix.  9,  10       . 

125 

i.  4 

166 

xix.  18   . 

174 

ii.  6.  14-18     . 

L46 

xix.  19   . 

142 

iii. 

118 

xx.  1-6   . 

161 

iii.  2 

166 

xx.  17-18 

161 

iv.  . 
iv.,  v. 

161 

149 

xx.  25,  26 
xxi. 

57 
133 

iv.  1-3    . 

149 

xxi.  10-15       . 

58 

iv.  3-16  . 

98 

129 

xxiii. 

145 

iv.  4 

166 

xxiii.  5-8 

151 

iv.  28,  32 

150 

xxiii.  15-17     . 

137 

138 

v.-xv. 

142, 

149 

161 

xxiii.  24 

140 

v.-vii.     . 

149 

xxiii.  26-32    . 

141 

151 

v.  1-vi.  7 

149 

xxiii.  27,  29    . 

153 

v.  1-6     . 

149 

xxiii.  29 

161 

v.  r» 

V.   11          . 

150 

hi; 

xxiv.  5-9 

XXV. 

57 

146 

124 

v.  i\-±,  12 

149 

xxvi. 

124 

v.  13       . 

150 

xxvi.  34-43     . 

58 

vi.  2 

150 

xxvii.  28.  29  . 

155 

vi.  1-7    . 

119 

xxvii.  28 

155 

vi.  u 

150 

vi.  12      . 

14S 

Number 

s. 

vi.  14-18 

148 

vi.  24-30 

Hit 

i.  8,  18  . 

131 

vii.          .       1 

15,  148, 

150 

161 

iv.  7       . 

147 

vii.  7 

, 

166 

v.  15       . 

146 

vii.  31    . 

145 

v.  18       . 

145 

▼iii. 

154 

vi.  . 

.     136 

145 

viii.  ix.  . 

132 

vi.,  vii.,  xxviii..  xx 

ix.     . 

151 

xii.  3 

142 

vi.  22-27 

113 

xiv.,  xv. 

151 

vii. 

151 

xiv.  15   . 

150 

ix.  13     . 

161 

xiv.,  xix. 

14«t 

xv.  1-16 

14  6 

xvi . 

.      141. 

151 

157 

xv.  22     . 

149 

xvi.  21,22 

127 

,167 

xv.  22-29 

161 

xvii. 

127 

,  161 

xviii.  14 

i:,:, 

xvii.-xxvi. 

56.  G 

173 

xviii.  26 

1  15 

xvii.  2    . 

167 

xix. 

142 

14 


210 


INDEX  OF  0.    T.   PASSAGES 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Numbers  {continued'). 

Deuteronomy  {continued). 

xix.  13,  20     .                      161 

xviii.  21-22    . 

.     115 

xxi.  8     . 

.     109 

xix. 

.     126 

xxiii.  21 

.     131 

xix.  13  . 

.     162 

xxiv.  7  . 

.     131 

xx.  10-18 

.     155 

xxvi.,  xxvii. 

.     125 

xxi.  1-9 . 

142,  162 

xxviii.  16-25 

.     151 

xxiii.  4,  15     . 

.     152 

xxix.  7-11 

.     141,  151 

xxvi.  1-11 

.     152 

XXX. 

.     152 

xxvi.  2, 10      . 

.     137 

XXXV. 

.     126 

xxvi.  18-19    . 

.       39 

xxx  vi.    . 

.     125 

xxx.  6    . 

.     142 

xxxii.  17 

.     110 

xxxii.  38 

.     164 

Deuteronomy. 

xxxiii.  2 

.     124 

xxxiii.  5 

.     130 

i.  6 

.     121 

xxxiii.  10 

.     114 

iv.  12 
iv.  19 
v.  2 
v.  8 
v.  15 
vi.  4 
vi.  5 
vi.  13 
vii.  6 
vii.  26 
x.   . 
x.  16 
xii. 

xii.  1-16. 
xii.  3 
xii.  13,  14 
xii.  19 
xiii.  1-8 
xiv. 
xiv.  2 
xiv.  27-29 
xvi. 
xvi.  10 
xvi.  13 
xvi.  16 
xvi.  21,  22 
xvii.  14-20 
xviii.  6-8 
xviii.  15 
xviii.  15-22 
xviii.  18. 


12 


105 

195 

102 

35 

140 

40 

175 

156 

39 

155 

157 

142 

152 

37 

35 

37 

38 

35 

142 

39 

38 

37 

138 

138 

138 

35 

129,  131 

38 

91 

38 

113 


Joshua. 


v.  13      . 

.     125 

vi.  18     . 

.     155 

vii.  14    . 

.     114 

xvii.  3    . 

.     125 

XX. 

.     126 

xxii.  19  . 

.     124,  156 

xxiv.  25 

.     102 

Judges. 


v.  5 

.     124 

vi.  11,  12,20,  21     . 

.     108 

vi.  14,  16,  23  . 

.     108 

vi.  34     .         .         . 

.     105 

xiii.  15,  21      . 

.     108 

xiii.  22,  23      . 

.     108 

1  Samuel. 


iii.  4 
iii.  17 
iii.  20 
iv.  4 
vi. 

vi.  15 
vii.  9 


105 
156 
91 
99 
150 
119 
144 


IXDEX   OF   0.   T.   PASSAGES 


211 


1  Samuel  {continued). 


viii.  12 
ix.  x. 
ix.  9 
x.  11 
x.  2 1 

X.  26 

xi.  4 
xi.  ir> 
xii.  12,  1 
xiv.  11 
xvi.  1 
xvi.  6 
xvi.  13 
xxii.  7 
xxiv.  25 
xx  vi.  19 
xxviii.  6 
xxx.  8    , 


vi.  2 
vii. 
xi.  11 
xiv.  17 
xxii.  32 
xxiii.  5 
xxiii.  16 
xxiv.  1 


ii.  20.27 
iii.  4 
iii.  2S 
vi.  28,29 
viii. 
xi.,  xii. 
xi.  29 
xiii.  18 
xiv.  7 
xviii. 
xviii.  21 
xix. 
xix.  11 


134, 


2  Samuel. 


1  Kings 


131 

135 

135 

91 

114 
19 
19 

154 

19 

114 

8 

87 
105 
14(3 
130 
121 
114 
114 


99 

99 
89 

97 
102 
150 

110 


.  132 

126,  130 

.  106 

.  108 

.  130 

8 

.  113 

.  109 

.  113 

113,  134 

.  14 

.  114 

.  105 


1  Kings  {continued) 


xix.  16  . 
xxi.  22  . 
xxii. 

xxii.  19,20 
xxii.  22  . 


2  Kings. 

ii.-vi. 

iii.  27     . 

iv.  9 

v.  17       . 

xii.  16    . 

xiv.  23-27 

xviii.  4    . 

xviii.  6  . 

xxi. 

xxi.  16   . 

xxii.,  xxiii, 

xxii.  15-17 

xxii.  19  . 

xxii.  20  . 

xxiii. 

xxiii.  2  . 

xxiii.  3  . 

xxiii.  4-14 

xxiii.  8,  13,  15,  20 

xxiii.  15-20 

xxiii.  2m 

xxiii.  25 


1  Chronicles. 


xxi.  1     . 
xxix.  21.  22 


xi.  15 
xv.  1   . 
xxix.,  xxxi 
xxxv.  20-24 


2  Chronicles. 


Ezra. 


lll.-Vl. 

iv.  1-4 


154 
113 

115 
106 

1";. 


134 

164 

133 

164 

150 

14 

31 

43 

32 

32 

34 

40 

107 

43 

116 

130 

102 

32,  35 

38 

35 

43 


110 
154 


110 
105 

151 
40 


63 
63 


212 


INDEX  OF  0.    T.  PASSAGES 


Ezra  (continued) 


vii.  6,  21,  25 
viii.  21  . 
ix.,  x.     . 
ix.  1-4    . 


Nehemiah. 


v.  . 

viii. 
x.  . 
x.  29 
xiii. 
xiii.  4-9,  10 
xiii.  10-14 
xiii.  23-28 
xiii.  28  . 
xiii.  29-31 


136 

153 

65 

64 


65 
67 
65,  116 
102 
65 
64 
65 
65 
68 
65 


ix.  20,  32 


Esther. 


Job. 


139 


i.  5 

.     162 

i.  6 

106,  107 

ii.  1 

106,  107 

iv.  18     . 

.     109 

xiv.  13, 14      . 

.     189 

xix.  25,  26      . 

.     189 

xxviii.    . 

.     106 

xxix. 

.     173 

xxxviii. -xli.   . 

.     Ill 

Psalms. 


n.  . 

iii.. 
vii. 
viii.  3 
viii.  5 
x. 
xi.  7 

XV.   1 

xvii. 
xvii.  14 


69 

69,73 

111 

108 

69 
189 
101 

69 
183 


Psalms  (continued) 
xvii.  15  . 
xviii. 
xviii.  10 
xix. 

xix.  1-6 
xix.  12  . 

XX. 

xxii. 
xxvii.  6 
xxxiii.  6,  9 

XXXV.       . 

xxxvii.  . 

xxxvii.  37,  38 

xxxix.  12 

xli. 

xliv. 

xlv. 

1.  5 

li.  16,  17 

lx. 

Ixi. 

lxvi.  18  . 

lxviii.  8,  17 

lxix. 

lxxii. 

lxxiii.  19 

lxxiii.  25,  26 

lxxiv.     . 

lxxvii.-lxxix 

lxxviii.  . 

lxxviii.  49 

lxxix.  8 

lxxx.  1  . 

xci.  11  . 

xcix.  1  . 

ciii.  21   . 

cv.-cvii. 

cvi.  37  . 

cix. 

cix.  6     . 

ex. 

ex.  4 

cxv. 

cxviii.    . 

cxix. 

cxix.  71 

exxxix.  8-12 


INDEX  OF  0.   T.   PASSAGES 


213 


PACE 

PAGE 

Psalms  {continued). 

Isaiah  (conti 
v.  22      . 
v.  23 

nued). 

.       21 
.       21 

cxlvii.  18,  19          .         .     105 

cxlviii.  5         .         .         .105 

v.  26       . 

.       22 

vi.          .  20,  37,  1C 

5,  106.  167 

vi.  3 

.     123 

Proverbs. 

vi.  1 

.     109 

viii.  14-18      .         .         .106 

vii.  8      . 

.       25 

viii.  22-31      .         .         .106 

vii.  6 

.       22 

xxxi.  10-31    .        .         .173 

vii.  11    .         .   .    ■ 

.     115 

vii.  14    . 

.       89 

vii.  14,  16      . 

.       24 

ECCLESIASTES. 

vii.  14   . 

.       24 

vii.  16   . 

.       25 

ix.  10     .         .        .        .188 

vii.  17-25 

.       24 

viii.  1-4 

.       24 

Isaiah. 

viii.  4     . 

.       25 

viii.  8     . 

24,  8£ 

i.-v. 

.     124 

viii.  11-13       . 

.       24 

i.    . 

9 

viii.  14  . 

24,  25 

i.^2 

22 

viii.  16  . 

.       31 

i.  10,  17 

22 

viii.  16,  17     . 

.       24 

i.  11,  13 

11 

viii.  17  . 

.       31 

i.  21,  23 

21 

viii.  18  . 

.       24 

i.  23       . 

22 

viii.  19  . 

.       22 

i.  25-27  . 

25 

ix.  2-7    .    ■     . 

22,25 

i.  29       . 

22 

ix.  6 

.       89 

ii.  1-4     . 

37,  86 

ix.  7       . 

.       87 

ii.  6 

22 

x.  1-4     . 

.       21 

ii,.  6-22  . 

22 

x.  5-16  . 

.       31 

ii.  8 

22 

x.  20-23. 

.       84 

ii.  11      . 

21,  23 

x.  21       . 

.       89 

iii.  8       . 

22 

X.  24-34. 

.       30 

iii.  13     . 

23 

xi.  1 

.       87 

iii.  11,  15 

21 

xi.  1-9    . 

.       85 

iii.  16     . 

21 

xi.  1-10. 

.       91 

iii.  16-iv.  1 

22 

xi.  10-16 

.       84 

iv. 

25 

xiii.,  xiv. 

.       61 

iv.  3,  1  . 

163 

xiv. 

.     188 

v.  2 

81 

xiv.  24-27 

.       30 

v.  4 

22 

xiv.  29  . 

.     109 

v.  7 

21.  25 

xvi.  5     . 

.       87 

v.  8 

21 

xvii.  1-11 

.       25 

v.  8-25  . 

22 

xvii.  6    . 

.       25 

V.  13       . 

175 

xix.,  xx. 

.       28 

v.  18,  19 

.       21 

xix.  18-25 

.       86 

v.  20      . 

21 

xxii.  15-19     . 

.      29 

v.  21      . 

21 

xxviii.  3 

.       25 

214 


INDEX  OF  0.    T.    PASSAGES 


Isaiah  (continued') 
xxviii.  3-8 
xxviii.  23-29 
xxix.  1,  2 
xxix.  1-8 
xxx.  3    . 
xxx.  6    . 
xxx.  15  . 
xxx.  23-26 
xxx.  31-33 
xxxi.  1,  3 
xxxi.  3  . 
xxxi.  8,  9 
xxxii.  1 . 
xxxii.  15 
xxxiii.  17 
xxxvi.  19,  20 
xxxvii.  12-29 
xxxvii.  35 
xxxviii.  7 
xxxix.    . 
xxxix.  6,  7 


25 
105 
29 
30 
29 
109 
29 
84 
30 
28 
28,  29 
30 
90 
84 
90 
31 
31 
30 
115 
28 
28 


xl.-lxvi.    . 

xl. 
xl.  2 
xl.  9,  11. 
xl.  28     . 
xli. 

xli.  8-10 
xli.  23,  24 
xlii.  4-6. 
xlii.  6  . 
xliii. 
xliii.  1-7 
xliv.  1  . 
xliv.  1,  2 
xliv.  1-8 
xliv.  6  . 
xliv.  7  . 
xliv.  9-20 
xliv.  28 . 
xlv.  1  . 
xlv.  4  . 
xlv.  5  . 
xlv.  6,  7. 
xlv.  12  . 


54,  59,  60,  61,  91, 
92,  194,  200 
60,  61,  199 
61,  178 
89 
60 
81 

103 
60 
80 

102 
81 
84 
61 
92 
81 
59,  97 
60 
60 
62 
90 
92 
59 

196 
60 


Isaiah  (continued). 

xlv.  14  .  .        .        .86 

xlv.  23,  24  .         .         .60 

xlvi 62 

xlvi.  1,  2  .         .         .60 

xlvi.  3   .  .         .         .93 

xlvii 61 

xlvii.  6  .  .         .         .61 

xlviii.  1-8  .         .         .       60 

xlviii.  13  105 

xlix.  3    .  .         .         .92 

xlix.  5    .  .         .         .93 

xlix.  5,  6  .         .         .91 

xlix.  6   .  .         .         60,  86 

xlix  22,  23  .         .         .86 

xlix.  26.  89 

li.  6  .         .         .     197 

Hi.  13  ;  liii.  12        .         91,  92 

liii.         .  .46,  60,  178,  188 

liii.  5,  10  .         .         .92 

liv.  5,  6 .  .         .         .101 

liv.  17    .  .         .         .86 

lv.  3,  4  .  .         .         .88 

lvi.  1-8  .  .         .         .86 

lviii.  5   .  .         .         .153 

lx 86 

lxi.  1      .  .        .         .155 

lxi.  4-6  .  .         .          85, 86 

lxv.  17  .  .         .         .     197 

lxv.  20-22  ...       85 

lxv.  25   .  .         .         .85 

lxvi.  19,  20  .         .         .    _8£ 

lxvi.  22.  .         .       94;  197 


Jeremiah. 


i.  2 
i.  10 
i.  11-19 
i.  18 
ii.  2 
iii.  12 
iii.  16 
iv.  2 
iv.  4 
v.  1 
vii.  18 


.  105 
.  91 
.  33 
.  47 
7,101 
.  50 
64,  158 
.  41 
.  142 
.  49 
.       45 


INDEX  OF  0.   T.   PASSAGES 


215 


Jeremiai 

vii.  28    . 

I  (COI 

itinvcd). 
.       49 

Ezekiel  (con 
vi.  1-14. 

tinned). 

.       51 

ix.  25,  26 

.       50 

vii.  23    . 

.       51 

xi.  10     . 

.     102 

viii. 

45,  51 

xi.  28     . 

.       46 

ix.  x. 

.     108 

xiii.  23  . 

.       49 

xiii. 

.        51,  134 

xiv.  8     . 

89 

xvi. 

.    8,  51,  101 

xv.  4      . 

33,  49 

xvii.  11-21      . 

.       51 

xxi.  4-7 . 

50 

xvii.  13  . 

.     101 

xxii.  15,  16 

.       45 

xvii.  15  . 

.       51 

xxiii.  5,  6 

.       88 

xvii.  20 . 

.       51 

xxiii.  5-8 

.       84 

xviii. 

46,  185 

xxiv.  4-7 

50 

xviii.   5-9 

.     174 

xxv.  9    . 

.       50 

xviii.  30.  31    . 

.     179 

xxv.  11  . 

.       60 

xviii.  32. 

.     104 

xxv.  12-14 

.       50 

XX. 

.       51 

xxv.  15-33 

.       50 

xx.  5 

7 

xxv.  31 

.       50 

xx.  37    . 

.     102 

xx  vii.     . 

.     134 

xxi.  8-24 

.       51 

xxviii.    . 

.     115 

xxii. 

.       51 

xxx.-xxxiii. 

60,  61,  81 

xxv.  -xxxii.    . 

51,  59 

xx  xi.  9  . 

.       97 

xxv.  7    . 

.       59 

xxxi.  31 

.     102 

xxix.  21. 

.       60 

xxxi.  27.  34 

.      84 

xxxii.     . 

.     188 

xxxi.  31-34 

.       86 

xxxiii.  11 

.     104 

xxxii.  39-40  . 

86,  179 

xxxiii.  21-29  . 

.       53 

xxxiii.  15,  16 

.       88 

xxxiv.  23,  24. 

.       88 

xxxvi.    . 

.     116 

xxxiv.  26,  27. 

.       84 

xl.-xliv. 

.       53 

xxxiv.  28 

.       86 

xliv. 

10,  45 

xxxvi.  9-38    . 

.       60 

xliv.  18,  19 

.       59 

xxxvi.  16-24  . 

59 

xlvi.-xlix. 

.       50 

xxxvi.  21 

.     103 

xlix.  7-22 

.       54 

xxxvi.  22 

61 

1.,  Ii.      . 

50,  61 

xxxvi.  25,  26. 

.     178 

Ii.  20      . 

.       61 

xxxvi.  26,  27. 

.       86 

xxxvii.  . 

60,84 

Lamentations. 

xxx  vii.  1,  14. 
xxxvii.  15-28. 

.     188 
.       84 

i.  18               .        .        .59 
ii.  14      .         .         .         .       59 
iv.  13     .         .         .         .       59 

xxxvii.  24,  25 

.       88 

xxxvii.  26 
xxxviii. . 
xxxix.    . 

.     103 

.       82 
.       82 

xxxix.  23-29  . 

.       81 

Ezekiel 
i 105 

xl.-xlviii.        .      56 
xl.-xlii.  . 

58,  65,  79, 

130,  149 

.       56 

ii.  9         .         .         .         .42 

xiii. 

.     127 

iii.  3       . 

.       42 

xliii. 

56 

216 


INDEX  OF  0.   T.   PASSAGES 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Ezekiel  (continued). 

Hosea  (continued). 

xliv.  1-3        .         .             130 

vi.  2       .         .         .       84,  188 

xliv.  9-14 

131 

vi.  5,  6 

.       19 

xliv.  9-16 

56 

vi.  6 

.       18 

xliv.  15-16 

131 

vi.  7 

19,  102 

xlv.  1     . 

145 

vi.  9 

.       18 

xlv.  15-17 

166 

vii.  11 

.       19 

xlv.  17  . 

130 

vii.  16 

.       20 

xlv.  18-20 

141 

viii.  1 

19,  102 

xlvi. 

127 

viii.  4 

. 

18,  19 

xlvii.  1-12 

84 

viii.  5 

.       32 

xlvii.  9-12 

84 

viii.  5,  6 

18 

xlvii.  18 

/ 

124 

viii.  10 

19 

xlviii.     . 

85 

viii.  11 

18 

viii.  12 

19 

Daniel. 

viii.  13 
viii.  14 

18 
19 

vii.  10    .         .        .        .107 

ix.  3 

20,  156 

vii.  14    . 

.       89 

ix.  9 

19,  131 

vii.  14,  17 

.       92 

ix.  15 

.       18 

viii.  16  . 

.     109 

x.  1 

.       18 

ix.  21     . 

.     109 

x.  8 

.       18 

ix.  25,  26 

83,  87,  93 

x.  9 

.       19 

ix  26     . 

.       92 

x.  13 

.       19 

x.  13      . 

.     109 

x.  15 

.       18 

x.  20,  21 

.     109 

xi.  1 

7,  100 

xii. 

83,  109 

xi.  2 

.       20 

xii.  2      . 

.       75 

xi.  5 

.       20 

xii.  2,  3 . 

.     187 

xi.  8,  9 

20,  104 

xii.  1 

.       19 

HOSEA 

xii.  7 
xii.  11 

.       18 

.       18 

i.  10       . 

.       20 

xiii.  2 

.       18 

ii.  . 

.       10 

xiii.  10,  11 

.       19 

ii.,  iii. 

.     101 

xiv. 

.       20 

ii.  5 

.       18 

ii.  11 

:         18 

ii.  13 

.       IS 

Joel. 

ii.  14-23 

.       20 

ii.  16 

18 

ii.  18  ;  iii.  18 .         .         .84 

ii.  18 

.     102 

ii.  30,  31                               197 

iii.          .        .         .         .82 

iii.  5 

20,  87 

iv.  1,  2 

.       18 

iii.  19     .        .         .        .54 

iv.  6 

19.  97.  175 

iv.  13 

.  '    18 

Amos. 

iv.  15 

18 

iv.  17 

.       18 

i.  2         .         .        .         .36 

v.  16 

10 

ii.  5 

17 

IXDEX   OF   0.    T.   PASSAGES 


217 


Amos  {continued') 


ii.  6 
ii.  7 
ii.  13-16 
ii.  13 
iii.  2 
iii.  7 
iii.  8 
iii.  10 
iii.  14.  15 
iii.  14 
iv.  1 
iv.  4,  5 
iv.  6-11 
iv.  12 
iv.  13 
v.  5 

v.  16-27 
v.  18 
v.  21,  22 
v.  22 
v.  26 
vi.  14 
vii. 

vii.  11 
vii.  14 
vii.  15 
viii.  5 
viii.  14 
be.  7 
ix.  11 


Obadiah. 


17 
9,  17 
16 
84 
12 
15 
15 
17 
16 
17 
17 
17 
16 
16 

201 
17 
16 
12 
17 

148 
32 
16 
17 
16 

134 

15 

17 

17 

112,  194 

.       88 


85 


iii.  4       . 
iii.  10     . 


Jonah. 


Micah 


118 

11> 


37 
26 
26 
26 


Micah  (continued). 


ii.  12 
iii. 

iii.  5 
iii.  12 
iv.  1-4 
iv.  4 
iv.  5 
v.  . 
v.  2 
v.  5 

v.  10-14 
vi.  8 


i.  1 
i.  15 

iii.  1 


Nahum. 


Habakkuk. 


i.  12 
i.  13 

ii.  4 
ii.  8 
ii.  9-17 
ii.  18-20 
ii.  20 


Zephaniah. 


ii.  7,  9    . 
ii.  13      . 
iii.  8 
iii.  13     . 
iii.  15-17 


ii.  6 

ii.  6-9  . 
ii.  7,  8  . 
ii.  10-14 
ii.  20-23 
ii.  21 
ii.  23      . 


HAGGAI. 


88, 


26 
26 

143 
26 
37,  86 
86 
26 
82 
90 
90 
MS 

175 


34 
34 
33 


5 
51.  69 
51 
50 
50 
50 
51 


33 

:^:> 
33 
33 
89 


94 
B2 
s6 

142 
82 

197 


218        INDEX  OF  0.    T.   PASSAGES 


Zechaeiah. 

i.  21 
iii  -v. 
iii.  1,2 
iii.  8 
iv. 
iv.  6 
iv.  14 
vi.  9-13 
vii.  3-5 
viii.  7-15 
viii.  12 
viii.  19 
ix.  9-11 
ix.  12-1 
xii. 
xii.  8 


139 


139 


82 

83 
1<,9 

88 

8 

154 

93 

93 
153 

81 
si 

153 
90 
89 
82 
88 


PAGE 

Zechariah  (continued). 
xiii.        . 
xiii.  2-6  . 


xiv. 

xiv.  1-11 
xiv.  16-19 
xiv.  20,  21 


Malachi. 


i.  7-U 
ii.  11-16 
iii.  1 
iii.  1-3 
iii.  8-10 
iii.  11,  12 
iv. . 
iv.  4 


134 

82 
84 
86 
65 


67 

67 

89 
83 

67 
84 
83 
42 


P» 


Date  Due 

Mr  4     '40 

iff 

EPWN 

^^te8#*?fc ': 

<f) 

